An Empire Across Three Continents class 11 HISTORY MCQ & SAQ

An Empire Across Three Continents class 11 HISTORY  NCERT SOLUTION

If you had lived in the Roman Empire,where would you rather have lived - in the towns or in the countryside? Explain why.

Answer:

One would have preferred to live in the towns in the Roman Empire, because the cities could withstand the famines and droughts with its abundant food storage than the countryside. Cities were also centers of imperial power with many opportunities for work in the administration and military.

Compile a list of some of the towns,cities,rivers, seas and provinces mentioned in this chapter,and then try to find them on the maps. Can you say something about any three of the items in the list you have compiled?

Answer:

Towns: Alexandria, Carthage, Pompeii, Cairo, Mecca

Cities: Naples, Sicily, Galilee, Campania

Rivers: Guadalquivir, Rhine, Euphrates, Danube

Seas: Aegean Sea, Black Sea, Mediterranean Sea, Red

Sea, Caspian Sea

Provinces: Tripolitania, Cyrenaica, Gallic

Campania: The best kinds of wine came from Campania.

Sicily: It, along with Byzacium, exported large quantities of wheat to Rome.

Mediterranean Sea: It was the heart of Rome's empire. Rome dominated the Mediterranean and all the regions around that sea.

 

Imagine that you are a Roman housewife preparing a shopping list for household requirements. What would be on the list?

Answer:

As a Roman housewife, my shopping list for a household would include wine, wheat, barley, beans and lentils and frankincense.

 

Why do you think the Roman government stopped coining in silver? And which metal did it begin to use for the production of coinage?

Answer:

(i)The monetary system of the late empire shifted from the silver-based currencies to gold, because the Spanish silver mines were exhausted.

(ii)The Roman government ran out of sufficient stocks of the metal to support its monetary system with silver coins.

(ii)Constantine introduced the new monetary system based on gold, and there was a huge circulation of gold coins throughout late antiquity.

 

ANSWER IN A SHORT ESSAY

Suppose the emperor Trajan had actually managed to conquer India and the Romans had held on to the country for several centuries. In what ways do you think India might be different today?

Answer:

If the Roman Emperor, Trajan had actually managed to conquer India, the country would be different today on following aspects:

(i) Changes in language, culture, literature, art and architecture, and administration and IegaI Ia ws.

(ii) Close cultural interaction; conversion into Christianity, and the cultural influence of Hinduism on the Roman Empire

(iii)Legal protection and property rights for Indian women

(iv)The cruel institution of the Roman slavery would have taken root in India.

(v) The idea of public baths would have been adopted.

(vi) India would have benefited from the Roman engineering skills in building massive aqueducts to carry water, the use of hydraulic mining techniques, and water-powered milling technology.

(vii) The olive oil production and wine consumption would have become part of Indian food culture.

 

Go through the chapter carefully and pick out some basic features of Roman society and economy which you think makes it look quite modern.

Answer:

Basic features of Roman society:

(i)The nuclear family was one of the more modern features of Roman society.

(ii)Slaves were included in the family as the Romans understood this.

(iii)The idea of public baths was another modern element.

(iv)Regarding the institution of marriage, the wife did not transfer her dowry to her husband's authority but retained full rights in the property of her natal family.

(v)Women enjoyed full property rights, and became an independent property owner on her father's death.

(vi)Divorce was an easy process; it needed no more than a notice of intent to dissolve the marriage by either husband or wife.

Basic features of the Roman economy:

 

(i)Diversified applications water power around the Mediterranean and the use of hydraulic mining techniques, and water-powered milling technology

(ii) Well-organized commercial and banking networks and the widespread use of money in silver and gold

An Empire Across Three Continents class 11 HISTORY MCQ 

1. The Ostrogoths established their kingdom in Italy in the year

(a) 493 CE

(b) 494 CE

(c) 495 CE

(d) 496 CE

► (a) 493 CE

2. The religion of Islam arose during the

(a) 5th century CE

(b) 8th century CE

(c) 6th century CE

(d) 7th century CE

► (d) 7th century CE

3. The Roman emperor who consolidated the rise of provincial upper classes so as to exclude the senators from military command was

(a) Augustus

(b) Constantine

(c) Gallienus

(d) Tiberius

► (c) Gallienus

4. Augustus, the first Roman Emperor was called the ‘leading citizen’ whose Latin term is

(a) 'Basileus'.

(b) 'Dominus'.

(c) 'Princeps'.

(d) 'Res gestae'.

► (c) 'Princeps'.

5. Christianity became the state religion of Roman Empire in the

(a) 1st century CE.

(b) 2nd century CE.

(c) 3rd century CE.

(d) 4th century CE.

► (d) 4th century CE.

6. The emperor who made Christianity the official religion in the Roman Empire was

(a) Alexander

(b) Augustus

(c) Constantine

(d) Nero

► (c) Constantine

7. In the Roman urban life, the entertainment shows called “spectacula’ happened for at least

(a) 150 days

(b) 160 days

(c) 167 days

(d) 176 days

► (d) 176 days

8. The Roman Empire got best kind of wine from the city of

(a) Byzantium

(b) Campania

(c) Naples

(d) Sicily

► (b) Campania

9. The Roman silver coin, known as denarius, weighed _________ gm of pure silver.

(a) 2½

(b) 3½

(c) 4½

(d) 5½

► (c) 4½

10. Saint Augustine was bishop of the North African city of

(a) Annaba

(b) Algeria

(c) Hippo

(d) Numidia

► (c) Hippo

11. ______ and Greek languages were used in administration of the Roman Empire.

(a) Chinese

(b) Mayan

(c) Latin

(d) Turkish

► (c) Latin

12. The Roman ruler _____ was considered as the ‘leading citizen’ only to show that he was not the absolute ruler.

(a) Augustus

(b) Constantine

(c) Gallienus

(d) Tiberius

► (a) Augustus

13. What were Amphorae?

(a) A type of army

(b) A type of container

(c) A type of district administrator

(d) None of the above

► (b) A type of container

14. The best kind of wine came to Rome from _______

(a) Fayum

(b) Byzacium

(c) Galilee

(d) Campania 

► (d) Campania

15. Which one of the following is a river that forms the boundary of the Roman Empire?

(a) Mekong River

(b) Rhine River

(c) Amur River

(d) Yangtze River

► (b) Rhine River

16. The ______ System of the Roman Empire was the system of government in which the real power vested in the Senate.

(a) Democrat

(b) Republican

(c) Maoist

(d) Marxist

► (b) Republican

Question : Augustus, the first Roman Emperor was called the ‘leading citizen’ whose Latin term is

(a) ‘Basileus’.

(b) ‘Dominus’.

(c) ‘Princeps’.

(d) ‘Res gestae’.

Answer :  C

Question : Which one of the following is a river that forms the boundary of the Roman Empire?

(a) Mekong River

(b) Rhine River

(c) Amur River

(d) Yangtze River

Answer :  B

Question : Asymmetrical globalization is:

(a) The way in which contemporary globalization is equally experienced across the world and amongst different social groups.

(b) The way in which contemporary globalization is unequally experienced across the world and amongst different social groups.

(c) The degree to which networks or patterns of social interaction are formally constituted as organizations with specific purposes.

(d) A process in which the organization of social activities is increasingly less constrained by geographical proximity and national territorial boundaries.

Answer :  B

Question : In the Roman urban life, the entertainment shows called “spectacula’ happened for at least

(a) 150 days

(b) 160 days

(c) 167 days

(d) 176 days

Answer :  D

Question : The emperor who made Christianity the official religion in the Roman Empire was

(a) Alexander

(b) Augustus

(c) Constantine

(d) Nero

Answer :  C

Question : The Roman emperor who consolidated the rise of provincial upper classes so as to exclude the senators from military command was

(a) Augustus

(b) Constantine

(c) Gallienus

(d) Tiberius

Answer :  C

Question : What were Amphorae?

(a) A type of army

(b) A type of container

(c) A type of district administrator

(d) None of the above

Answer :  B

Question : The best kind of wine came to Rome from _

(a) Fayum

(b) Byzacium

(c) Galilee

(d) Campania

Answer :  D

Question : Rome was situated on the bank of river

(a) Nile

(b) Tiber

(c) Sutlej

(d) Thames

Answer : B

Question : Augustus, the first Roman Emperor was called the leading citizen whose Latin term is

(a) Basileus

(b) Dominus

(c) Princeps

(d) Res gestae

Answer :  C

Question : Saint Augustine was bishop of the North African city of

(a) Annaba

(b) Algeria

(c) Hippo

(d) Numidia

Answer :  C

Question : The international Convention on the Elimination of Child Labour:

(a) Was a result of countries appearing as autonomous containers of political, social, and economic activity in that fixed borders separate the domestic sphere from the world outside.

(b) Represents a process in which the organization of social activities is increasingly less constrained by geographical proximity and national territorial boundaries.

(c) Involves a complex mix of homogenization and increased heterogeneity given the global diffusion of popular culture, global media corporations, and communications networks.

(d) Was the product of a complex politics involving public and private actors from trade unions, industrial associations, humanitarian groups, governments, and legal experts.

Answer :  D

Question : Roman ruler _____ was considered as the leading citizen only to show that he was not the absolute ruler.

(a) Augustus

(b) Constantine

(c) Gallienus

(d) Tiberius

Answer :  A

Question : The emperor who made Christianity the official religion in the Roman Empire was

(a) Alexander

(b) Augustus

(c) Constantine

(d) Nero

Answer :  C

Question : In Roman urban life, the entertainment shows called spectacular happened for at least

(a) 150 days

(b) 160 days

(c) 167 days

(d) 176 days

Answer :  D

Question : ______ and Greek languages were used in the administration of the Roman Empire.

(a) Chinese

(b) Mayan

(c) Latin

(d) Turkish

Answer :  C

Question : The ______ System of the Roman Empire was the system of government in which the real power vested in the Senate.

(a) Democrat

(b) Republican

(c) Maoist

(d) Marxist

Answer :  B

Question : The Roman silver coin, known as denarius, weighed _________ gm of pure silver.

(a) 2½

(b) 3½

(c) 4½

(d) 5½

Answer :  C

Question : The best kind of wine came to Rome from _

(a) Fayum

(b) Byzacium

(c) Galilee

(d) Campania

Answer :  D

Question : The Roman silver coin, known as the denarius, weighed _________ gm of pure silver.

(a) 2

(b) 3

(c) 4

(d) 5

Answer :  C

Question : The Ostrogoths established their kingdom in Italy in the year

(a) 493 CE

(b) 494 CE

(c) 495 CE

(d) 496 CE

Answer :  A

Question : Christianity became the state religion of the Roman Empire in the

(a) 1st century CE

(b) 2nd century CE

(c) 3rd century CE

(d) 4th century CE

Answer :  D

Question : What were Amphorae?

(a) A type of army

(b) A type of container

(c) A type of district administrator

(d) None of the above

Answer :  B

Question : The Roman emperor who consolidated the rise of provincial upper classes so as to exclude the senators from military command was

(a) Augustus

(b) Constantine

(c) Gallienus

(d) Tiberius

Answer :  C

Question : The religion of Islam arose during the

(a) 5th century CE

(b) 8th century CE

(c) 6th century CE

(d) 7th century CE

Answer :  D

Question : __ and Greek languages were used in administration of the Roman Empire.

(a) Chinese

(b) Mayan

(c) Latin

(d) Turkish

Answer :  C

Question : The Roman emperor who consolidated the rise of provincial upper classes so as to exclude the senators from military command was

(a) Augustus

(b) Constantine

(c) Gallienus

(d) Tiberius

Answer :  C

Question : The emperor who made Christianity the official religion in the Roman Empire was

(a) Alexander

(b) Augustus

(c) Constantine

(d) Nero

Answer :  C

Question : The Roman Empire was divided into eastern and western halves in the _________century.

(a) 4th

(b) 3rd

(c) 2nd

(d) 7th

Answer :  A

Question :  The emperor who made Christianity the official religion in the Roman Empire was

(a) Alexander

(b) Augustus

(c) Constantine

(d) Nero

Answer :  C

Question :  The Roman Empire got the best kind of wine from the city of

(a) Byzantium

(b) Campania

(c) Naples

(d) Sicily

Answer :  B

Question : Globalization involves:

(a) A stretching of social, political, and economic activities across political frontiers.

(b) A growing magnitude of interconnectedness in almost every sphere of social existence.

(c) An accelerating pace of global interactions and processes associated with a deepening enmeshment of the local and the global.

(d) All of the answer options given are correct

Answer :  D

An Empire Across Three Continents class 11 HISTORY SAQ

The text has referred to three writers whose work is used to say something about how the Romans had treated their workers. Can you identify them? Record the section for yourself and describe any two methods the Romans used to control labor.

Answer:

Yes, those three writers were-Tacitus, Columella, and Pliny the Elder.

Tacitus writes on labor controlling networks. He states the slaves were misbehaved and tortured to the extent, they sometimes committed the murder of their owners. He has written that a City Perfect (as of today’s Mayor or Chief Councillor) was murdered by one of his slaves which ultimately, resulted in riots, so uncontrolled as the slaves besieged the senate-house. However, the convict was executed. It shows the senators did not take notice of such a grave situation. No laws reducing punishment were passed particularly, made for the slaves.

The slaves were sometimes grouped into gangs or smaller teams and sternly supervised. As per Columella, another historian of that period, most groups were made in each group of ten slaves. The Natural History writer, Pliny who was also Elder (councilor) to administration, states that slaves were chained together by their feet so that they could save the expenditure incurred on supervision and a permanent measure to keep them busy with the work so assigned to them. He further states, a seal was put upon the workmen’s apparel and they had to wear a mark or a net with a close mesh on their heads.

Agricultural labor was also in a pathetic state and the same conditions prevailed when we talk of workers in factories and workshops. A law was passed in 398 C.E. allowing branding upon the body of laborers/ workmen so that they would be recognized if and when they run away and try to hide. Private employers began doing contracts in term of debts when they would provide the laborers/workers at the time of joining for a period of 25 years ahead and thus, debt bondage oppressed their instincts to the extent, they tolerated every draconian treatment and had surrounded them in servitude although they were free.

 

It is said that some specific events and circumstances add new words to the vocabulary. Can you state the event that added the term Draconian? Please, explain.

Answer:

Yes, “Draconian” a specific term got popularity owing to Draco, the Greek lawmaker in the Roman empire. He, during the early sixth century B.C.E., had recommended a law in 398 C.E., which referred to workers being branded so they could be recognized if and when they run away and try to hide.

It was gross inhuman treatment with the laborers i.e. the main active and sensitive part of the project/ work. Hence, the pains inflicted upon laborers by branding so severe and harsh to mankind would have accumulated and said law, we see added to the dictionary since then for all kinds of rules, decrees, orders, implications, and ordinances equally implied.

 

What were Frankincense and its origin?

It was an aromatic resin used in perfumes. It was extracted by the process of piercing the bark of Boswellia trees. The Arabian peninsula was suitable for the natural growth of those trees in forest areas there.

 

Describe the living standard of Aristocrat’s (nobles) during the Roman empire.

These were those rich people called members to the senate in government like councilors of modem period. They owned a medium city like big area with all affluent and appearance facilities and ease. Hippodromes, fora, temples, fountains, and different kinds of baths were essential components to their possession.

Every counselor had an income of 4,000 pounds of gold per annum from their properties not including grain, rice, and other produce which, if sold, would have exchanged for at least 1500 pounds. The second class people came into being when Gallienus imposed a prohibition on the recruitment of senators into the army in order to prevent control of the empire from falling into their hands. Their income was one thousand or fifteen hundred pounds of gold per year. It has been mentioned by Olympiodorus, the historian of that period.

 

What period, you would say or the contemporary historian had stated as “Late Antiquity”, why would this phrase be used for, explain.

Answer:

It was the period around the fourth to seventh centuries. The term “antiquity” is archeological and denotes the period around the modern and the past i.e. medieval period. Several natural and economic changes were witnessed by this period about that of three centuries. Constantine and Diocletian were the emperors of that period. It was Diocletian who inserted division of power in the army and civilians including senators. He curtailed the territories' less productive and minimal importance in view of defense i.e. strategy.

Constantine on his part had reinforced the division of power made by his predecessor viz. Diocletian is remembered for the circulation of gold coin solidus weighing 4.5 grams. This measure brought economic stability. the empire as there was no dearth of supply from North Africa. He established his second capital at Byzantium (Istanbul in Turkey at present) and named it Constantinople (i.e. the palace of the emperor Constantine). Cotta industries got patronage of these two rulers and factories, mainly oil presses and glass factories, were established.

 

Who was Nero and why is he famous even today?

Nero was a Roman citizen known to the Greek language and one of the extremists among the slaves/workers/workmen coerced and tortured badly by their factory owners, land-owners, and senators. He led the motion violently when a slave convicted as the murderer of Lucius Pedanius Secundus was being taken to execute under the order of the senate. He rebuked the population for watching deafly; the injustice, so severe practiced on the slaves. The crowd was ready to attack senators and the jailor got blows of stones and was tortured in their hands. This was the first mass agitation led by Nero.

 

Who were plebs Sordida? Do you see them resemble modern film stars and sportsmen? How?

In context to the Roman empire, plebs Sordida were the unkempt lower class people but addicted to circus and theatre display including slaves. Their activities were confined to observing the moods of their owners, mostly senators and keeping them at mirth. There were no laws preventing their execution to the displeasure of their owners. Thus, that section of society was of the least value and even today, these activities are called pastimes i.e. merely for recreation at leisure and these people are like soothsayers in Shakespearean plays.

The theatrical quality, however, has been preferred by the public to the extent that one may see one or more lessons on text-books recommended by NCERT by virtue of their keen observation of society and its instincts soaked into the ocean of western culture and cunning manners. Travesty of words and dialogues, the electronic media has technically sorted and pseudo trends are being implanted into human minds.

The logic for such is invincible in globalization and trying to create a universal soul that would make humanity universal. We are thus, soon, going to be universal-men once described by our culture as-“Ayam Nijah Paroveti Ganana Laghu Chet Sam, Udara Caritanamatu Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam.” No doubt, it is a renaissance but just reverses the cycle of the renaissance that had begun since the thirteenth century C.E. from Italy.

 

What had resulted when debt-bondage attacked the labor instincts?

The workmen/laborers/coolies/workers/servants etc. suffered when draconian tricks were practiced on them severely. It gradually hammered nails in their head and heart of them, it gave birth to rebellion in Judaea against Roman domination e.g. great Jewish revolt of 66 CE The revolutionaries destroyed the money lenders’ bonds to win popular support.

 

Who was the exception of labor coercion?

Despite labor coercion to a severe degree by virtue of draconian laws, the emperor Anastasius of the late fifth century offered high wages in course of the frontier city of Dara constructed by him. It is pertinent to mention that-that the entire city was built by workers in less than three weeks’ time. We also came to know through Papyri that widespread wage-labor had become inputs of the Mediterranean by the sixth century especially, in the east.

 

Describe some less-advanced states under the Roman empire.

Numidia (modern Algeria) witnessed transhumance during the Roman empire. There were pastoral and semi-nomadic communities. Transhumance was the regular animal movement of the herdsmen between the higher mountain regions and low lying ground in search of pasture for sheep and other flocks. They had oven-shaped huts (Papalia) with them, all portable. In Spain, the village called Costella was inhabited by the Celtic speaking peasantry. However, with the expansion of Roman estates in North Africa, the pastures of these communities were drastically reduced and their movements more tightly regulated.

 

Discuss the sophistication trends in the Roman economy.

Economic Life under the Roman empire was most advanced. Diversified applications of water power around the Mediterranean, development of water-powered milling technology, the use of hydraulic mining techniques in the Spanish gold and silver mines and gigantic industrial scale, well organized commercial and banking networks, and widespread use of gold coins indicate prima facie the sophisticated economy under the Roman empire.

 

Who were equities and what was their role in the Roman empire?

The term equities denote the horse-rider, hence, it refers to knights who were the second most powerful and wealthy group after senators viz. This group represents the army, the third organ of the government. They were families whose property qualified them to serve in the cavalry. Mostly, people of this group were landowners and some others were ship-owners, traders, and bankers, viz. people were involved in business activities.

 

Discuss the traditional religious culture of Greek and Roman under the Roman empire.

Both Greek and Roman were poly-theist. There were numerous cults in which gods like Jupiter, Juno, Minerva, and Mars and several Greek and eastern deities worshiped in thousands of temples, shrines, and sanctuaries throughout the empire. The above were mainly Roman/Italian gods. Polytheists had no common name or label to describe themselves. Judaism was diverse within the Jewish communities of late antiquity. Bishops were orthodox type and used to criticize the common Christians for beliefs and practices they did thereupon. They made a very rigid set of beliefs and practices.

 

Describe the condition of the middle class under the Roman empire.

The middle class consisted of government servants in the bureaucracy and soldiers as also prosperous merchants and farmers in the eastern provinces. The middle class has been described as clients to the great senatorial houses.

 

Who was humiliated?

Humilores was the term incorporating jointly all lower classes of Roman society. They conferred a rural labor force of which many were permanently employed on the large estates, workers in industrial and mining departments, migrant workers for the grain and olive harvests, and building industry i.e. construction of houses, public-houses including palaces. Self-employed artisans were better fed than wage laborers (in big cities) including slaves.

 

Discuss the Roman bureaucracy during early fifth-century C.E.

It was an affluent group because it drew the bulk of its salary in gold and invested much of this in buying up assets like land. There was corruption in the judicial and administration of military supplies. Bureaucrats were extorting animals and provincial governors were corrupt. As historians and other members of the intelligentsia condemned these practices, the government passed from time to time several legislations to curb the corrupt practices. Olympiodoriis, the historian of that period, has mentioned that a number of laws were passed in order to abolish corrupt practices. The government, being autocratic, responded to protests with violence in the cities of the East.

The law passed by the fourth century C.E. imposed restrictions on the arbitrary tendencies of the emperor as it provided protection to civil rights. For instance, Ambrose, the powerful Bishop, protested sternly against the repressive measures they practiced on the civilian population.

 

How independent were women in the Roman world? Compare the situation of the Roman family with the family in India today.

Women were independent the most in the Roman empire with the right to get a share in their father’s property and became independent property owners on her father’s death. The Dowry system was also prevalent in that society. Thus, women benefited in two ways. We can state that married couples were not one financial entity but two, and the wife enjoyed complete legal independence. She was free to get a divorce from her husband only through the notice of intent to dissolve the marriage. The marriageable age for males was their late twenties or early thirties while it was late teens or early twenties for the females. It means boys were eligible to marry after twenty-five while it was eighteen or nineteen for the girls.

Thus, a large gap between husband and wife would have encouraged a certain inequality. Mostly arranged marriages were solemnized but women were often subjected to domination by their husbands. Augustine, the bishop of the North African city of Hippo writes that his mother was regularly beaten by his father and that most other wives in that small town had similar bruises to show. Fathers had substantial legal control over their children viz. they were free to kill their unwanted children e.g. such children would be left to die by leaving them out in the cold.

Indian Succession (Reforms) Act, 2005 has also provided women in India, right to get a share in their fathers’ properties equal to their siblings. Divorce cases are also piling up at the courts of this country. Women have been given reservations on 33% of the assembly and parliament seats including at the level of local self-government viz. village, block, and district levels (Panchayati Raj).

Q.1. What formed the boundaries of the Roman Empire to the north as well as south?

Ans. The boundaries of the Roman Empire were formed to the north by the rivers Rhine and Denube. These were formed by the huge expanse of desert called the Sahara to the South.

Q. 2. Which two languages were used in the administration of the Roman Empire?

Ans. Latin and Greek languages were used in administration of the Roman Empire.

Q.3. Why was Roman ruler Augustus considered the ‘leading citizen’?

Ans. Roman ruler Augustus was considered as the ‘leading citizen’ only to show that he was not the absolute ruler. It was done out of respect for the Senate.

Q.4. Which empire’s army was a conscripted army? What was its meaning?

Ans. The army of the Persian empire was a conscripted army which was forcibly recruited. It means that military service was compulsory for some adult males of the state.

Q.5. State any two features of the Roman army.

Ans. (i) The Roman army was professional in which every soldier was paid a salary.

(ii) Soldiers were put in a minimum of 25 years of service.

Q. 6. Which were the three main players in the political history of Rome?

Ans. (i) The emperor

(ii) The aristocracy

(iii) The army.

Q.7. What was the base of membership of the Senate in Rome?

Ans. Wealth and office-holding was the base of membership of the Senate.

Q.8. What is meant by the Civil War?

Ans. Armed struggle between two groups of a country to capture power is known as the Civil War.

Q. 9. For what the age of Roman emperor Augustus is known and why?

Ans. Augustan age is known for peace. It was so because this peace came in after the decades of internal conflict and centuries of military conquests.

Q.10. What is meant by the Near East of Rome?

Ans. The meaning of Near East of Rome is the territory east of the Mediterranean sea. Territories of Syria, Palestine and Arabia were included in it.

Q. 11. What was the importance of great urban centers in the imperial system of Rome ? Write names of the three largest urban centers of Rome?

Ans. The great urban centers were the true bedrock of the imperial system in Rome. The Government was able to tax the provincial countryside through these cities which generated a major portion of the wealth of the empire. Carthage, Alexandria and Antioch were three largest urban centers of Rome.

Q. 12. What steps did the emperor Gallienus take to prevent control of the empire from falling into Senator’s hands?

Ans. (i) The emperor Gallienus consolidated the rise of power of the new elites.

(ii) He excluded Senators from military command. An Empire Across Three Continents 45

Q. 13. In the third century Rome, what did the trends of the majority of provincial Senators reflect?

Ans. (i) These trends reflected that there was a general decline of Italy within the empire from a political and economic perspective.

(ii) These trends reflected that there was a rise of new elites in the wealthier and more urbanized parts of the Mediterranean.

Q. 14. What is meant by a ‘city’ in the Roman sense?

Ans. In the Roman sense, a city was an urban center which had its own magistrates, city council and a definite territory. This territory contained many villages under its jurisdiction.

Q. 15. Why were public baths opposed in Iran?

Ans. The clergy of Iran viewed water as a sacred element and to use it for public bathing seemed a desecration to them. This is the reason why public baths were opposed in Iran.

Q. 16. In the third century, rulers of which dynasty of Iron and which Germanic tribes invaded the Roman Empire?

Ans. In the third century, rulers of the Sasanian dynasty of Iran and Germanic tribes, namely the Alamanni, the Franks and the Goths invaded the Roman Empire.

Q. 17. How far were Roman women self dependent?

Ans. (i) Roman women were given enough legal rights in owning and managing property

(ii) Divorce was relatively an easy affair.

Q.18. What were Amphorae? Where were they made?

Ans. Amphorae were a type of container. They were used in transporting liquids like wine and olive oil. They were made in the Mediterranean region.

Q. 19. Name four densely populated areas of the Roman empire (two each from Italy and Egypt).

Ans. (i) Campania and Sicily in Italy.

(ii) Fayum and Galilee in Egypt.

Q. 20. From where did the best kinds of wine and wheat come to Rome?

Ans. The best kind of wine came to Rome from Campania and wheat from Sicily and Byzacium.

. 1. Describe the major sources of Roman history.

Ans. The major sources of Roman history can be broadly divided into three groups :

(i) Texts (ii) Documents (iii) Material remains.

(i) Texts : Letters, speeches, sermons, laws, histories of the period written by contemporaries, etc., are included in it.

(ii) Documents : Inscriptions and papyri are included in it. Inscriptions were generally cut on stone which is why they have survived even till today. A large number of inscriptions have survived in both Greek and Latin. Thousands of contracts, letters, accounts and official documents have survived on papyrus which was a reed like plant and whose leaves were used for writing.

(iii) Material remains : A number of items are included in material remains. They are mainly discovered by archeologists. These include monuments, buildings, other kinds of structures, coins, pottery, mosaics, entire landscapes, etc. Each of these remains give us specific information about the Roman past.

Q. 2. Discuss the expansion of the Roman and Iranian empires.

Ans. In the period down to the 630s, most of Europe, North Africa and the Middle East was ruled over by the two powerful empires. These two powerful empires were Rome and Iran. These both empires were rivals to each other. For much of their history, they fought against each other. Both of these empires were separated only by a narrow strip of land which ran along the river Euphrates and they both lay next to each other.

(i) The Roman Empire. The Mediterranean and all the regions around that sea, in north as well as in south, was dominated by the Roman Empire. In the north direction, boundaries of the Roman empire were formed by two rivers—the Rhine and the Danube. In the south direction, its boundaries were formed by the huge expanse of the Sahara desert.

(ii) The Iranian Empire. Whole of the area south of the Caspian Sea down to eastern Arabia and even sometimes large parts of Afghanistan were controlled by the Iranian Empire. Both of these superpowers had divided most of the world which is known as ‘Ta ch’ in Chinese.

Q. 3. Give a brief description of the Republican System of the Roman Empire.

Ans. The Republican System of the Roman Empire was the system of government in which the real power vested in the Senate. Members of the Senate enjoyed a life-long term. For it, wealth and prestige of office were of more importance. So the Senate was dominated by rich people, known as the elites. In practice, the Republic was a government of the elites, which was run by an institution, namely the Senate. The Republic government was there from 509 BCE to 27 BCE. In 27 BCE it was overthrown by Julius Caesar’s adopted son and successor Octavian and he himself became the emperor of Rome.

Q. 4. What is meant by the ‘Principate’ in context of the Roman Empire ? What was the position of the emperor and the Senate in it ?

Ans. Principate was the regime established by the first Roman emperor, Augustus, in 27 BCE. Although Augustus was the only real source of authority and was the sole ruler, he kept the fiction alive that he was not the absolute ruler, only the ‘leading citizen’. It was done to give respect to the Senate.

The Senate was the body which had controlled Rome in the days when it was a Republic. The existence of this institution remained for centuries. This institution was representing the aristocracy and elites, meaning the wealthiest families of Rome. But later on Italian descent mainly landowners were also included in it. Emperors were judged by the fact that how they behaved towards the Senate. Hostile emperors toward the Senatorial class were judged as the worst emperors. Many Senators yearned to go back to the age of the Republic. But most of the Senators must have realized that this was not possible.

Q. 5. Briefly describe the role of the army in the early Roman Empire.

Ans. The army was one of the major institutions of the Roman Empire. The army of the Roman Empire was a paid professional army. Every soldier had to serve a minimum of 25 years of service. In fact, the existence of a paid army was one of the distinctive features of the Roman Empire. The army definitely had the power to determine the fate of emperors as it was the largest single organized body in the empire.

There were constant agitations of soldiers for better wages and service conditions. These agitations, most of the time, were changed into mutineers. Army. The Army was feared and hated by the Senate. It was so because it was a source of violence. The success of individual emperors was mainly dependent upon their control over the army. When the armies were divided then the result generally was a civil war.

Q. 6. What was the significance of provincial and local rule of the early Roman Empire?

Ans. (i) Provincial Rule : The Roman direct rule was gradually extended. This process was done by capturing many dependent kingdoms into provincial territories of the Roman Empire. The Near East region was full of this type of kingdom. The kingdoms that lay in the west direction of the river Euphrates were also swallowed by  Rome before the early second century. Some of these kingdoms were very much wealthy. In fact, except Italy, all the territories of the empire were divided into provinces and all of them had to pay taxes.

(ii) Local Rule : A number of cities were set up in the whole of the empire. Whole of the empire was controlled through these cities. These cities or great urban centers were the actual basis of the imperial system. The government was able to tax the provincial countryside through these centers. These taxes were one of the major sources of the wealth of the empire.

Q. 7. Who were the three main players in the political history of the Roman Empire ? Write two or three sentences about each of them.

Ans. The three main players in the political history of the Roman Empire were the emperor, the elite group and the army.

(i) The Emperor : The emperor was the sole ruler of the empire, but he was called the leading citizen. This was done out of respect for the Senate. It also showed that he was not the absolute ruler.

(ii) The Elite Group : The elite group stood for the Senate. It included members of the aristocracy and wealthy families. It controlled Rome in the days when it was a Republic. Emperors were judged by how they behaved towards the Senate. Emperors who were hostile to the Senate were considered the worst.

(iii) The Army : Next to the emperor and the Senate was the army. It was a professional one. Each soldier was paid a salary. The army had the power to determine the fate of emperors.

Q. 8. What was a ‘city’ in the Roman sense? Also tell some characteristics of urban life.

Ans. In the Roman sense, a city was an urban center which had its own magistrate, city council and a definite territory. This territory contained many villages under its jurisdiction. So one city could not be a part of another city. Decision about the status of a city or village depended upon royalty. Villages could be given the status of cities, and vice-versa.

Characteristics of the urban life :

(i) There was no shortage of food in cities.

(ii) Cities had better facilities during famines than the countryside.

(iii) Urban people enjoyed a higher level of entertainment. For example, one calendar tells us that sphectacula shows are filled not less than 176 days of the year.

Q. 9. By giving an example, explain that the Roman Empire faced a lot of strain in the third century.

Ans. The Roman empire faced a lot of strain in the third century. It would be clear from the following examples:

(i) In 225 C.E., a new and more aggressive dynasty emerged in Iran. People of this dynasty called themselves the ‘Sasanians’. They expanded very quickly towards the Euphrates within just 15 years. A famous rock inscription, written in three languages, has been found in which the Iranian ruler, Shapur I, claimed that he destroyed a Roman army of 60,000. He also claimed to capture the eastern capital of Antioch.

(ii) Meanwhile, a number of Germanic tribes (the Alamanni, the Franks and the Goths) started moving towards the Rhine and Danube frontiers. The whole period from 233 to 280 C.E. saw repeated attacks over provinces stretched from the Black Sea to the Alps and southern Germany. Due to these invasions, the Romans were forced to abandon most of their territory beyond the river Danube.

(iii) The emperors of this era had to remain constantly in the fields against the barbarians (German tribes).

(iv) The quick succession of emperors in the 3rd century is a definite example of the strains faced by the empire during this period.

Q. 10. There was widespread cultural diversity in the Roman Empire. Give some examples.

Ans. There is no doubt that there was widespread cultural diversity in the Roman Empire. This diversity was reflected in many ways and at many levels.

(i) There was a vast diversity of religious cults and local deities.

(ii) There was a plurality of spoken languages.

(iii) People wore various styles of dress and costume.

(iv) People enjoyed different kinds of food.

(v) Forms of social organization were different.

(vi) Their patterns of settlement were of various types.

An Empire Across Three Continents class 11 HISTORY long question

Outline the Roman administration, the structure of society, Gender, literacy, culture, and economic expansion under the Roman empire.

Answer:

We would like to answer this question under the following sub-heads:

(a) Administration-It was an aristocratic form of government. The administration was done through provinces under a single emperor. Organs of the Roman government were the emperor, the senate (wealthy families mostly landowners), and the army (equities consisting of ship owners, bankers, traders, and landowners). These were knights and categorized under middle class) viz. three organs. Tacitus, the contemporary writer, says that the middle class was a client to the great senatorial houses. The fourth organ was that of Humiliores (i.e. lower class). It was consisting of plebs Sordida addicted to the circus and theatrical displays and finally, the slaves.

Early administration was called Principate alias aristocracy in which the emperor was Princep (leading citizen) not the absolute ruler but actually, such was only a facade as it was the emperor who had exercised the real power of administration. The Senate was powerful till it was a republic. The Senate consisted of the wealthiest families of Roman and later, Italian descent, mainly landowners. Senators only had written Roman histories. There were also emperors who behaved with suspicion or brutality and violence against the senatorial class but even after efforts made skilfully, this class could not bring back the days of the republic i.e.; the period when it had absolute powers to rule. Urban centers were developed and the large chunk coffer constituted income from taxation on provinces, urban centers, and the villages.

(b) Gender-It was witnessed that women were given independent legal rights to the effect that they were made heir to the property of their natal family, entitled to own and manage the property at their will, and independent property owner on their father’s death. Those were not transferred to their husbands’ authority after marriage. They were made free to divorce their husbands or their husbands would be free to divorce them and it needed no more than a notice of intent to dissolve the marriage. Despite so many legal rights given, male domination was all apparent as Saint Augustine, the bishop had described the coercive treatment of his father to his mother. Perhaps that was because of the large gap between the marriageable age of boys and girls i.e. 30 years and 19 years respectively.

(c) Literacy-Advertisements and graffiti (wall writing) in Pompeii reveals that there was casual literacy. The papyri survived in hundreds, and disclosed documents such as contracts were written by professional scribes. The general public was illiterate but soldiers, army officers, and estate managers were well educated to tackle their affairs. Greek, Latin, Celtic, Aramaic, and Coptic were the languages. The former two were widely used and patronized by the emperor. The latter was mostly in oral form as no script till then developed.

(d) Culture-Diversity of religious cults and local deities is witnessed all through the Roman empire. There were languages like Greek, Latin, Aramaic, Coptic, and Celtic, etc. Greek and Latin, there was diversity in styles of dress and costume, the food people ate, their forms of social organization (tribal/non-tribal) and their patterns of the settlement were also of diverse nature. Aramaic was the dormant language group of the Near East (west of the river Euphrates).

(e) Economic expansion-Economic infrastructure of the Roman empire consisted of harbors, mines, quarries, brickyard, and olive oil factories. Major trading items were wheat, wine, and olive oil. Wine and olive oil were transported in containers called amphorae. Spanish olive oil of this period was mainly carried in a container called Dressel-20. Prices of commodities were determined on perfect competition as for instance, Spanish producers had captured the markets for olive oil from their Italian counterparts. North Africa subsequently became a major producer of olive oil. During the later fifth and sixth centuries, the Aegean, southern Asia Minor (Turkey), Syria, and Palestine became major exporters of wine and olive oil.

Producer regions of the Roman empire were Campania (Italy), Sicily, Fayum (Egypt), Galilee, Byzantium (Tunisia), southern Gaul (Gallia Narbonensis), and Baetica (Southern Spain). The writers like Strabo and Pliny had stated this fact.

Less advanced territories were the villages like Numidia (Algeria) and Castella. Transhumance was in vogue, as these communities were that of herdsmen.

There were well-organized commercial and banking networks, water-powered milling-technology, the use of hydraulic mining techniques, and the industrial sector developed in the first and second centuries. The Papyri surviving from later centuries (i.e. 4th to 7th century) reveals an affluent society where money was in extensive use and rural estates generated vast incomes in gold. Only Egypt contributed taxes of over 2.5 million solidi (gold coin) roughly equal to 35,000 lbs. of gold.

(f) Social Hierarchies-Hierarchy of society can be mentioned as

1. senators (Patres),

2. leading members of the equestrian class,

3. section of people attached to the great houses,

4. plebs Sordida (lower class) and

5. slaves.

Italian families were two-third of the total number of senators. The first two groups above (i.e. senators and equities) were merged into one in the early part of the fourth century under emperor Constantine I. Half of all families were of African or eastern origin. The middle class was that of government servants, the army as also ship-owners, traders, and 1 banker. The lower class was collectively known as humiliates. This class comprised of the rural labor force, industry and mine workers, seasonal workers in the agriculture and construction industry, self employed artisans, and slaves. Silver coins were exhausted in the fourth century and gold coins circulated. Constantine founded this new monetary system on gold. There was enormous income from the industrial and mining sectors also as Constantine preferred the promotion of cottage industries.

Conclusion-Thus, we see how an empire across three continents had survived for more than six hundred years. It was a common type of administration wherein diverse cultures, religions, languages, etc. made their imprints, on the pages of history. Coercion and torture of the labor class were, however, pathetic and it finally, gave birth to the revolutionaries like Nero who shattered the system of slavery in spite of it was favored blindly by the senate. During the early seventh century, we saw a reduction in this trend after the Jewish war.

Q. 1. Discuss the main features of family life in Roman society.

Ans. The main features of family life in the Roman society are given below:

(i) Nuclear Family System. Nuclear family system widely prevailed in Roman society. Adult sons did not live with the families of their father. Adult brothers also did not share a common household. On the other hand, slaves were considered as a part of the family because this was the conception of family for Romans.

(ii) Marriage System. Until the first century BCE, the wife did not transfer her property to her husband. She retained the complete rights in the natal family’s property. During the duration of marriage, a woman's dowry definitely went over to her husband. The woman, even after her marriage, remained a primary heir of her father. She even became the owner of property after her father’s death. In this way Roman women had enough legal rights in managing and owning property. Divorce was quite easy in those days. It required only a notion of intent to break the marriage either by husband or wife. Males used to marry in their late twenties or early thirties. Women used to marry in their late teens or early twenties. That is why there was a gap between the ages of both. Generally arranged marriages were there.

(iii) Male-dominated Families. Families were male-dominated. Generally, women were dominated by their husbands. They used to beat their wives. Except this, there was a substantial legal control of fathers over their children–sometimes to a shocking degree. For example, they had legal power to dispose of their unwanted children. They even sometimes left them in the cold to die.

Q. 2. Throw some light on economic expansion of the Roman Empire.

Ans. Various economic activities prevailed in Rome. As a result, Rome saw a great economic expansion. Following are some of the characteristics of this expansion:

(i) Very good economic infrastructure of mines, harbors, brickyards, quarries, olive oil factories, etc., was there in the empire. Wine, wheat and olive oil were consumed in huge quantities and were traded as well. These things mainly came from the Gallic provinces, Spain, Egypt, North Africa and most importantly Italy where very good conditions were there for these crops. Wine and olive oil were transported in containers. These containers were known as ‘amphorae’.

(ii) During the years 140–160 C.E., trading of Spanish olive oil reached its peak. The Spanish olive oil was mainly transported in a container which was known as ‘Dressel-20’. The Italian market of olive oil was captured by the Spanish producers. It happened only because Spanish producers supplied better quality oil at lower prices. In other words, we can say that the big landowners of different regions used to compete with each other to take control of the markets for the goods which they produced.

(iii) Many regions were there in the empire with a reputation for exceptional fertility rate. Most densely populated and wealthiest parts of the empire were Campania and Sicily in Italy, the Fayum and Galilee in Egypt, Byzacium (Tunisia), Southern Gual (called Gallia Narbonensis) and Baetica (Southern Spain).

(iv) Campania was the main producer of the best kinds of wine. Large quantities of wheat were exported to Rome by Sicily and Byzacium.

(v) Large expanses of Roman territory were in a much less advanced state. For example, transhumance was widespread in the countryside of Numidia (modern Algeria). These pastoral and semi nomadic communities were generally on the move. They carried their oven-shaped huts (called mapalia) with them. As Roman estates expanded in North Africa, the pastures of those communities were drastically reduced and their movements more tightly regulated.

(vi) Even in Spain, the north was much less developed, and inhabited largely by a Celtic-speaking peasantry that lived in hilltop villages called castella. The fact is that Rome was economically a very rich state. A very large number of gold coins were prevalent in the country.

Q. 3. What was the role of slaves and hired labour in the Roman economy?

Ans. Slavery was deeply rooted both in the Mediterranean and in West Asia. There were 3 million slaves under the reign of Augustus out of total population of 7.5 million. Even after when Christianity became the state religion in the fourth century, the institution of slavery remained intact. Slaves were considered an investment.

Role of Hired Labour and Slaves. In the first century, peace was established and warfare became less widespread. It declined the supply of slaves. So the users of slave labour thus had to find other ways.

One of the method was slave breeding and other was cheaper substitute and that was wage labour which was more easily available. Actually, free labour was widely used in Rome on public works because use of slave labour was very expensive. Slaves had to be fed and maintained throughout the year but not to hired labour. It increased the cost of holding this type of labor. That is why in the later period, slaves were not widely used in agriculture. Now these freed men and slaves were widely used as business managers.

They were given capital by their masters to run business on their behalf or even business of their own. With the passage of time, the number of hired labor increased. The eastern frontier city of Dara was built in less than three weeks by the late fifth century emperor Anastasius. He attracted labor on high wages from all over the east. By the sixth century, wage labor had become widespread in many parts of the Mediterranean.

Q. 4. Describe the methods of the management of labor in the Roman Empire.

Ans. The Roman agricultural writers paid a great deal of attention to the management of labor:

(i) One of the Roman agricultural writers Columella recommended that landowners must keep a reserve stock of tools and implements, double than required, so that the production must go on.

(ii) Employers generally assumed that no work would ever get done without supervision. Therefore supervision was necessary for both slaves and free workers. Sometimes workers were grouped into gangs or smaller teams to make supervision easier. Columella also recommended making squads of ten. He claimed that in small groups, it would be easier to tell who is working and who is not. Pliny criticised the use of slave gangs because it was the worst method of organising production. It was so because those working in gangs were usually chained together by their feet.

(iii) Few industrial establishments in the empire kept even tighter controls. In the Frankincense factories, a seal was put upon the aprons of the workmen. They were required to wear a mask or a net with a close mesh on their heads. They were required to take off all their clothes before leaving the premises. This process was followed in most of the workshops and factories.

(iv) In a Law of 398, it was said that workers must be branded so that they could be recognised if they try to run away.

(v) A number of private employers used to make their agreements with workers as the debt contracts so that they could claim that their employees were in debt to them.

Q. 5. What is meant by ‘late antiquity’? Which religious and administrative changes were made during this period?

Ans. The term ‘late antiquity’ is used to describe the final, fascinating period in the evolution and break-up of the Roman Empire and refers broadly to the fourth to seventh centuries. This period was full of many cultural and economic fermentations. Following religious and administrative changes were made in the Roman Empire during this period.

(a) Religious Changes : 

(i) In the fourth century, Emperor Constantine made Christianity the official religion. Now, Christianity began to flourish in the state.

(ii) In the seventh century, Islam rose. This religion also began to become popular rapidly.

(b) Administrative Changes : Administrative set up of the state also saw several significant changes. These changes occurred in the time of Diocletian (248–305) and continued till the time of Constantine and after him. These changes were the following : (a) Changes in the time of Diocletian :

(i) The empire had expanded to a great extent. Many of its territories had no strategic or economic value. Therefore Diocletian cut back by abandoning territories with little strategic or economic value.

(ii) He fortified the frontiers of the empire.

(iii) He reorganized provincial boundaries.

(iv) He separated civilians from military functions and granted greater autonomy to the military commanders. It made military officials more powerful.

(b) Changes in the time of Constantine : 

(i) Constantine created Constantinople and made it the second capital. It was surrounded on three sides by the sea.

(ii) As the new capital required a new senate, there was a rapid expansion of the governing classes in the fourth century.