Pastoralists in The Modern World Class 9 HISTORY MCQ & SAQ

Pastoralists in The Modern World Class 9 HISTORY NCERT SOLUTION

Q.1: Explain why nomadic tribes need to move from one place to another. What are advantages to the environment of their continuous movement ?  

 

Solution: The reasons why nomadic tribes need to move from one place to another are as follows -

(1) The nomadic tribes had no regular fields of their own from where they could get fodder for their cattle. So, they needed to move from one place to another in search of pastures.

(2) They lived with their herd in the low hills of Himalayas from September to April because; the huge mountains or high altitudes were covered with snow during this period. In these areas the dry scrub forests provided pastures for their herds during this period.

(3) With the onset of summer, as the snow melted and the hill sides began to be covered with lush green with a variety of new grasses, the pastoralists started their northward march for their summer grazing grounds.

(4) Again with the onset of winter when the mountains began to be covered with snow and there was a dearth of nutritious forage, these pastoralists were on the move again, this time on their downward journey.

The various advantages to the environment of their continuous movement can be explained as this. The movement of the nomadic pastoralists from the downward to the upward areas and vice-versa allowed sufficient time for natural restoration of vegetation grounds. Their continuous shifting provided sufficient forage to the different animals both at the high mountains and the lower hills. They also helped in maintaining the quality of the pastures.

 

 

Q.2: Discuss why the colonial government in India brought the following laws. In each case explain how the law changed the lives of pastoralists: (a) Waste Land Rules (b) Forest Acts (c) Criminal Tribes Act (d) Grazing Tax.

 

Solution: The laws of the colonial government made from time to time adversely affected the lives of pastoralists. Moreover, these Rules and Acts led to the lowering of the quality of the pastures, shortage of forage for animals and deterioration of animal stock.    

 

(a) Effects of Waste Land Rules:

All grazing lands were considered as waste lands by the colonial rulers as they brought no revenue to them. So the government passed Waste Land Rules as a result of which all the uncultivated lands including the grazing lands, were taken over and handed over to select individuals to convert them to agricultural lands. As a result of this very soon the pastures vanished and this created a lot of problems for pastoralists.

 

(b) Effects of the Forest Acts:

The British Forest Acts by which some forests were declared ‘Reserved Forests’ and some as ‘Protected Forests’. These different Forest Acts passed in the mid-nineteenth century, greatly changed the lives of the pastoralists. In the Reserved Forests, no pastoral activities were allowed while in the Protected Forests, their activities strictly restricted since the colonial officials felt that the grazing animals would destroy the saplings thereby preventing the new trees from growing. Hence, because of these Forest Acts it became quite impossible for the pastoralists to graze their cattle in the forest areas and thus, to get sufficient forage for their cattle.

 

(c) Effects of Criminal Tribes Act:

The British officials were suspicious of the nomadic people because they did not live at a permanent place. They were considered criminals. The Criminal Tribes Act, 1871, declared such nomadic communities to be criminal by nature and also criminal by birth. As a result of this Act, the nomadic pastoralists were not allowed to move without a permit and required to live in the notified areas only. The village police also kept a strict watch on them. So, this Act came as a death blow for the moving activities of nomadic people.

 

(d) Effect of imposition of Grazing Tax:

In order to increase its income, the colonial government imposed tax even on the animals. Consequently the nomadic pastoralists had to pay tax on every animal they grazed in the pastures.

 

 

Q.3: Give reason to explain why the Maasai Community lost their grazing lands. 

 

Solution: Over half of the world’s total pastoralist population lives in Africa. Massai is one of these pastoral tribes who preside over a vast area stretching from North Kenya to the steppes of Northern Tanzania. Slowly and slowly these people lost their grazing rights. The reasons for the same are as follows:

1. As a result of inspiration, Massailand was divided in two parts - the British Kenya and German Tanganyika. Soon their lost grazing grounds were taken over for white settlements.

2. Gradually they were pushed into a small area south of Kenya and north of Tanzania. In this way Massai lost about 60% of their pre-colonial lands. They were confined to an arid zone with uncertain rains and poor pastures.

3. In the late 19th century, the colonial government in East Africa encouraged the local peasant communities to expand their cultivation. As a result of which it was found that the pasture lands of the Massai people turned into cultivable fields.

4. The large areas of grazing lands of Massai herds were also turned into game reserves. Some of these reserves were Massai Mara and Samburu National Park in Kenya and Serengeti Park in Tanzania.

Pastoralists in The Modern World Class 9 HISTORY MCQ:

Question: Pastoralists sustain by

• a) All the options

• b) Trade

• c) Cultivation

• d) Herding

Answer: All the options

 

Question: Bugyals are

• a) Semi-arid region in the Central Plateau of Maharashtra

• b) Vast meadows in high mountains

• c) Dry forested area below the foothills of Garhwal and Kumaon

• d) Swampy wet coastal tracts

Answer: Semi-arid region in the Central Plateau of Maharashtra

 

Question: Nomadic Pastoralists are People Who

• a) Move from one place to another with their herds to earn a living

• b) Move from one area to another

• c) Live in one place

• d) Gonds, Dhurwas and Bhatros are some nomadic pastoralists of India

Answer: Move from one place to another with their herds to earn a living

 

Question: Maasai means

• a) Myland

• b) My people

• c) My home

• d) Maa

Answer: Myland

 

Question: The Serengeti National Park is located in

• a) South Africa

• b) Tanzania

• c) Kenya

• d) Namibia

Answer: South Africa

 

Question: Which of the following was not a reason for Maasai loss of grazing lands

• a) Cultivated fields were converted into pasture lands

• b) White settlements

• c) Imperial powers scramble for colonies

• d) Game reserves

Answer: Cultivated fields were converted into pasture lands

 

Question: Which of the following constitute pastoral communities of Africa

• a) Bedouins, Berbers, Boran, Maasai, Somali, Turkana

• b) Gollas, Kurumas, Kurubes, Dhangar, Gujjars, Gaddis

• c) Korava, Karacha, Yerukula

• d) Chena, Milpa, Lading Dhya, Penda

Answer: Bedouins, Berbers, Boran, Maasai, Somali, Turkana

 

Question: The Maasais are cattle herders of

• a) East Africa

• b) India

• c) South Africa

• d) Indonesia

Answer: East Africa

 

Question: What was the tax imposed by colonists on pastoralists

• a) Grazing tax

• b) Canal water tax

• c) Land tax

• d) Salt tax

Answer: Grazing tax

 

Question: The Criminal Tribes Act was passed in

• a) 1871

• b) 1781

• c) 1817

• d) 1787

Answer: 1871

Question: Find the odd one out

• a) Nomadic population was easy to identify and control

• b) To colonial officers all grazing land appeared unproductive

• c) Nomadic were classified as criminal tribes

• d) British officials were suspicious of nomadic people

Answer: Nomadic population was easy to identify and control

 

Question: Protected forests were

• a) Customary rights were granted to pastoralists subject to severe restrictions on their movements

• b) Pastoralists were granted grazing rights in these forests without preconditions

• c) Access to these forests was prohibited

• d) Forests which produced commercially viable timber

Answer: Customary rights were granted to pastoralists subject to severe restrictions on their movements

 

Question: Colonial state regarded grazing land as

• a) Wasteland

• b) Habitat of wild

• c) Reserved land

• d) Woodland

Answer: Wasteland

 

Question: Genealogists

• a) Recount history of a community

• b) Recount history of a family

• c) Predict the future

• d) Train camels

Answer: Recount history of a community

 

Question: In which of the following states are Banjara's to be found

• a) Punjab, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh

• b) U.P., Punjab, Andhra Pradesh

• c) Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka

• d) U.P., Punjab, Jammu and Kashmir

Answer: Punjab, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh

 

Question: Pastoralists sustain by

• a) All the options

• b) Trade

• c) Cultivation

• d) Herding

Answer: All the options

 

Question: The alternation of monsoon and dry season defined the rhythm of

• a) Gollas

• b) Berbers

• c) Gujjar Bakarwals

• d) Gaddis

Answer: Gollas

 

Question: Which of the following was not a reason for Konkani peasants welcoming the herders

• a) Dhangar flocks fed on the stubble of the rabi crop

• b) They helped in kharif harvest

• c) Shepherds received supplies of rice

• d) They returned to the plateau with the onset of monsoons

Answer: Dhangar flocks fed on the stubble of the rabi crop

 

Question: Dhangars are pastoralists of

• a) Maharashtra

• b) U.P. hills

• c) Garhwal

• d) Jammu and Kashmir

Answer: Maharashtra

 

Question: Bugyals are

• a) Semi-arid region in the Central Plateau of Maharashtra

• b) Vast meadows in high mountains

• c) Dry forested area below the foothills of Garhwal and Kumaon

• d) Swampy wet coastal tracts

Answer: Semi-arid region in the Central Plateau of Maharashtra

 

Question: The cyclical movement of mountain pastoralists is defined by

• a) Cold and snow

• b) Dry season

• c) Onset of monsoons

• d) Prospects of trade

Answer: Cold and snow

 

Question: Bhabar

• a) Dry forested area

• b) Semi-arid region

• c) Thick forests

• d) Vast meadows

Answer: Dry forested area

 

Question: Name the significant feature of nomadic pastoralists

• a) Cycle of seasonal movement

• b) Shifting cultivation

• c) Live on the edges of forests

• d) Continuously on the move

Answer: Cycle of seasonal movement

 

Question: Nomadic Pastoralists are People Who

• a) Move from one place to another with their herds to earn a living

• b) Move from one area to another

• c) Live in one place

• d) Gonds, Dhurwas and Bhatros are some nomadic pastoralists of India

Answer: Move from one place to another with their herds to earn a living

 

Question: Name the Pastoral Nomads of Jammu and Kashmir

• a) Gujjar Bakarwals

• b) Bhotiyas

• c) Sherpas

• d) Gaddis

Answer: Gujjar Bakarwals

Pastoralists in The Modern World Class 9 HISTORY SAQ

 

Q.1. Describe the life of Dhangars of Maharashtra Ans.

 

1. The Dhangar shepherds stay in the central plateau of Maharashtra during the monsoon. By October, they harvest their bajra and move west to Konkan. The Dhangar flocks manure the fields and feed on stubble.

2. The Konkani peasants give them rice which they take to the plateau as grain is scarce there. With the onset of monsoon they leave Konkan and return to the dry plateau.

 

Q.2. How did the life of pastoralists change under colonial rule?

 

Ans. Under colonial rule, the life of pastoralists changed dramatically. Their grazing grounds shrank, their movements were regulated and they had to pay more revenue. Their agricultural stock declined and their trade and crafts were adversely affected.

 

Q.3. Why does a Raika genealogist recount the history of his community?

 

Ans. I am a 60-year-old Raika- herder, I have seen many changes in my life. We as herders have been affected in a variety of ways by changes in the modern world. New laws and new borders have affected the pattern of our lives and our movements. We have seen many restrictions being imposed on our mobility and we as pastoralists find it difficult to move in search of new pastures.

 

We have adapted to new times. We have changed the path of our annual movement, reduced our cattle numbers, pressed for rights to enter new areas, exerted political pressure on the government for relief, subsidy and other forms of support and demanded a right in management of forests and water resources. We are not relics of the past.

 

Q.4. How did the Forest Acts change the life of pastoralists? 

1. Forest Acts were enacted to protect and preserve forests for timber which was of commercial importance. These Acts changed the life of pastoralists.

 

2. 2.They were now prevented from entering many forests that had earlier provided valuable forage for their cattle.

 

3. 3.They were issued permits which monitored their entry into and exit from forests. They could not stay in the forests as much as they liked because the permit specified the number of days and hours they could spend in the forests. The permit ruled their lives.

 

Q.5 How did the pastoralists cope with the changes in production during the colonial period? 

 

Ans.1. Under colonial rule the life of the pastoralists changed completely. Their grazing grounds became less, their movements were regulated, the revenues they had to pay increased, their trade and crafts and agricultural produce declined.

 

2. The pastoralists adjusted with these changes. They reduced the number of cattle in their herds. They discovered new pastures. Some bought land and began to lead a settled life. Some poor peasants borrowed money to survive.

 

3. In due course of time they lost their cattle and sheep and became laborers.

 

Q.6. Compare the lives of African pastoralists with pastoralists in India during the colonial period.

 

Ans.1. There are many similarities in the way in which the modern world forced changes in the lives of pastoral communities in India and Africa.

 

1. All uncultivated land was seen as wasteland by colonial powers. It produced neither revenue nor agricultural produce. This land was brought under cultivation. In most areas the lands taken over were actually grazing tracts used regularly by pastoralists. So expansion of cultivation inevitably meant the decline of pastures and a problem both for Indian pastoralists and the Maasai.

 

2. From the 19th century onwards the colonial government started imposing restrictions on the pastoral communities. They were issued permits which allowed them to move out with their stocks and it was difficult to get permits without trouble and harassment. Those found guilty of disobeying rules were punished.

 

Q.7. ‘In Maasailand, as elsewhere in Africa, not all pastoralists were equally affected by the changes in the colonial period.’ Explain.

 

Ans.1. In Maasailand, as elsewhere in Africa, not all pastoralists were equally affected by the changes in the colonial period. In pre-colonial times, Maasai society was divided into elders and warriors.

 

2. To administer the affairs of Maasai, the British appointed chiefs who were made responsible for the affairs of the people. These chiefs often accumulated wealth with which they could buy animals, goods and land.

 

3. They lent money to poor neighbors who needed to pay taxes. Many of them began living in cities and became involved in trade. Their wives and children stayed back in villages to look after animals. These chiefs managed to survive the devastation of war and drought. They had both pastoral and non-pastoral income. But the poor pastoralists who depended only on their livestock did not have resources to tide over bad times. In times of war and famines, they lost nearly everything and had to look for work in towns.

 

Q.8. Describe the social organization of the Maasai tribe in the pre-colonial times. What changes occurred in the Maasai community during the colonial period?

 

Ans.1. The Maasai society was divided into two social categories – elders and warriors. The elders formed the ruling group and the warriors were responsible for the protection of the tribe.

 

2. They were assertive, aggressive and brave but were subject to the authority of the elders. They proved their manliness by conducting raids and participating in wars. Raiding was important in a society where cattle were wealthy.

 

3. The Maasai lost about 60% of their pre-colonial lands. Pasture lands were turned into cultivated fields and Maasai were confined to an arid zone with uncertain rainfall and poor pastures.4. They could not move over vast areas in search of pastures. It affected both their pastoral and trading activities as they were not only deprived of land but of all forms of trade.

 

Q.9. What were the views of the British officials about nomadic people? Mention two provisions of the Criminal Tribes Act.

 

Ans.1. British officials were suspicious of nomadic people. They distrusted mobile craftsmen and traders who hawked their goods in villages, pastoralists who changed their residence every season.

 

2. The colonial government wanted to rule over a settled population. Under the Criminal Tribes Act, the nomadic people were considered criminals by nature and birth and many communities of craftsmen, traders and pastoralists were classified as Criminal Tribes.

 

3.These communities were restricted to living in notified village settlements and were not allowed to move without a permit.

 

Q.10. Describe the life of pastoralists inhabiting the mountains of India.

 

Ans. 1.The Gujjar Bakarwals of Jammu and Kashmir, the Gaddi shepherds of Himachal Pradesh, the Gujjar cattle herders of Garhwal and Kumaon, the Bhotiyas, the Sherpas and Kinnauris move annually between their summer and winter grazing grounds governed by the cycle of seasonal movements.

 

2. They adjust their movements to seasonal changes and make effective use of available pastures in different places. When pastures are exhausted or unstable in one place they move their herds to new areas

Where do the Pastoralists normally live?

Solution:

The Pastorals normally live in the mountainous areas. These mountain areas are generally covered with lots of shrub forests. These shrubs provide food for their cattle and sheep.

Name the pastoralists in India and mention where they lived?

Solution:

There were seven major pastoralist communities in India. They were :-

1. The Bakarwals of Jammu and Kashmir

2. The Gaddi shepherds of Himachal Pradesh

3. The Gujjar cattle herders of Garhwal and Kumaon

4. Dhangars of Maharashtra.

5. The Gollas, Kurumas and Kurubas of Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh.

6. The Banjaras of Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh & Maharashtra

7. The Raika of the Rajasthan desserts.

Trace the movement of the Bakarwals of Jammu and Kashmir.

The Bakarwals of Jammu and Kashmir reared goats and sheep. They lived with their herds on the low hills of the Siwalik range.

In winter, when the mountains were covered with snow they moved on to the valleys of Kashmir. Several families moved together in a Kafila. They crossed the Pir Panjal passes of the mountains and entered the valley.

In summer when the snow melts, the Bakarwals return to the mountains which are now covered with lush green grasslands.

Name the two groups in the Raikas of the Rajasthan deserts.

The Raikas of the Rajasthan desert can be classified into two groups according to the animals they reared. The Marus Raikas reared camels while the Raikas reared sheep and goats.

What were the activities that the Raikas were involved in?

Solution:

The Raikas combine a range of different activities – cultivation, trade and herding – to make their living .

During the monsoons, the Raikas of Barmer, Jaisalmer, Jodhpur and Bikaner stayed in their villages and cultivated crops. They traded with the local farmers to meet their requirements. They also had to maintain good relations with the local farmers so that the farmers would let their cattle graze in harvested fields.

The Raikas had to be good in predicting the weather so that they would be able to move about safely. They had to be experts in sporting natural resources, water and pasture.

Write a note on the Dhangars of Maharashtra.

Solution:

Dhangars were an important pastoral community in Maharashtra. In the early twentieth century their population was estimated to be 467,000. The Dhangras were mainly shepherds. Some of them were blanket weavers, while a few reared buffaloes.

The Dhangars stayed in the central plateau of Maharashtra during the monsoons. The central plateau had very low rainfall and was very dry. It was covered with only thorny shrubs. As the soil was poor, only dry crops like bajra could be grown there.

During monsoon the picture was entirely different. The area became a vast grazing ground for the Dhangar flocks. The Dhangars harvested their bajra by October every year and then moved westward.

The Dhangars reach Konkan in the month of March, annually. Konkan was a flourishing agricultural land with high rainfall and rich soil. The pastoralists were welcomed by Konkani peasants. The Konkani peasants also gave supplies of rice to the Dhangars , who took it back to the plateaus, where grain was scarce.

As the monsoons set, the Dhangars left the Konkan and the coastal areas with their flocks and returned to their settlements on the dry plateau as their sheep could not tolerate the wet monsoon conditions.

Constant movement was the way of life of the pastoralists.

What are Gujjar Mandaps?

Solution:

The huts in which the Gujjar cattle herders of Ghahwal stay, are called Gujjar Mandaps. These huts are made up of bamboo and grass. They are situated at about 10,000 to 11,000 feet, as buffaloes cannot climb any higher. The mandap is also a workplace for the herders. They make ghee in these huts.

Mention the Acts that were enforced by the colonial government that affected the lives of the pastoralist community.

Solution:

The colonial government enforced four major laws that affected the pastoralists in a devastating manner. They were:-

Ø Waste Land rules

Ø Forest Acts

Ø Criminal Tribes Act

Ø Grazing Tax.

How did the laws enforced by the colonial government affect the lives of the pastoralists?Solution:

The laws brought a lot of hardship to the pastoralists. The laws led to a serious shortage of pastures, which was very important for the nomads. Under the new laws grazing lands were taken over and turned into cultivating fields and thus the available area of pastureland declined.

The reservation of forests meant that shepherds and cattle herders could no longer freely graze their cattle in the forests.

The restrictions and reservations the laws enforced threatened the very livelihood of the pastoralists and many had to resettle and adapt themselves to the new ways of the world.

Question-10

How did the pastoralists cope with the changes brought about by the new laws?

Pastoralists reacted to these changes in a variety of ways. Some reduced the number of cattle in their herds, since there was not enough pasture to feed large numbers. Others discovered new pastures, when old grazing grounds were banned by the government.

Over the years, some rich pastoralists began buying land and settling down, giving up their nomadic life they settled down to cultivating land. Others took to extensive trading.

Poor pastoralists borrowed money from moneylenders to survive, at times they lost their cattle and sheep and became laborers, working on fields or in small towns.

The changes that took place in India, were also seen in other parts of the world. New laws and settlement patterns forced pastoral communities to alter their lives.

Question-11

Mention a few Pastoral communities in Africa.

There are over 22 million Africans depending on some form of pastoral activity or other for their livelihood, till today.

Some of the Pastoral communities in Africa are :-

* Bedouins

* Berbers

* Maasai

* Somali

* Boran

* Turkana

Most of them now live in the semi-dry grasslands or deserts where rain fed agriculture is difficult.

What were the social changes that occurred in the Maasai pastoral community?

The social changes in the Maasai society occurred at two levels.

Firstly, the traditional difference based on age, between the elders and warriors, was disturbed, though it did not break down entirely. Secondly, a new distinction between the wealthy and poor pastoralists developed.

The pastoral communities in different parts of the world were affected in a variety of ways, by the changes in the modern world. New laws and new borders affected the patterns of their movement and their livelihood.

How did the pastoralists in Africa adapt themselves to the tide over the bad times?

Solution:

The life of poor pastoralists, in Africa, who depended mainly on their livestock, became very difficult in times of war and famine. During these times they lost everything.

To tide over the bad times the pastoralists had to go looking for work in towns. Some found a living as charcoal burners and others did odd jobs. A few of the pastoralists were lucky to get more regular work in road or building construction.

How did the British administer the affairs of the Maasai community?

Solution:

The British appointed chiefs of different sub-groups of the Maasai community to administer their affairs. They were made responsible for the affairs of the tribe. The chiefs appointed by the colonial government accumulated wealth over the years. They had a regular income with which they could buy animals, goods and land. Many of them began living in towns, and became involved in trade.

What were the views of Environmentalists and economists on pastoral nomadism?

Solution:

Environmentalists and economists felt that pastoral nomadism was the way of life that was best suited to many hilly and dry regions of the world.

Pastoralists in The Modern World Class 9 HISTORY long question

Q.1. Discuss the main characteristic features of pastoralism.

 

Ans. 1.Pastoralists are people who rear animals, birds and move from place to place in search of green pastures. They are nomadic tribes who need to move from one place to another to save their animals from adverse climatic conditions and to provide meadows or pastures regularly.

 

2. Some of the pastoral nomads move to combine a range of activities – cultivation, trade and herding – to make their living. Continuous movement of nomadic tribes is useful for the environment.

 

3. Pastoral nomadism is a form of life that is perfectly suited to many hilly and dry regions of the world. Pastoral movement allows time for the natural restoration of vegetation growth. Pastoralists play a very important role as moving traders.

 

4. In search of good pasture land for their cattle the pastoralists move over long distances selling plow cattle and other goods to villagers in exchange for grain and fodder.

 

Q.2. Discuss the factors on which the life of pastoralists depend.

 

Ans. Pastoralists live in small villages, in plateaus, in deserts or near the skirt of the woods. They cultivate a small piece of land, keeping herds of cattle, flocks of sheep and goats or herds of camels. They move between their summer and winter pastures with their herds, selling plough cattle and their things to farmers and getting grain and rice, selling milk and ghee, animal skin and wool. The pastoral life is sustained by the knowledge of:

 

ŸHow long to stay in one area ŸHow to find food and water for their herds

 

ŸHow to assess the timing of their movement ŸTheir ability to set up relationships with farmers.

 

Q.3. Elaborate on the seasonal movement of Dhangars of Maharashtra.

 

Ans.1. The Dhangars live in the central plateau of Maharashtra during the monsoon season. They use it as a grazing ground for their flock and herds. They sow their dry crop of ‘bajra’ here during the monsoon season. By October, they reap the harvest and move to Konkan–a fertile Agricultural region.

 

2. The Konkani peasants welcome them to manure and fertilize their fields for the ‘rabi' crop. The flocks manure the fields and feed on the stubble. They stay here till the monsoon arrives and then move on to the dry plateau. They carry with them the rice given by the Konkans.

 

Q.4. Describe the various facts of pastoralism in Africa.

 

Ans. 1.Communities like Bedouins, Berbers, Maasai, Somali, Boran and Tinkana live pastoral life. They raise cattle, camels, goats, sheep and donkeys. They sell milk, meat, animal skin and wool.

 

2.Some also earn through trade and transport, others combine pastoral activity with agriculture. Still others do a variety of jobs to supplement their meager income.

 

3.Like pastoralists in India, the lives of African pastoralists have changed dramatically over the colonial and post- colonial periods. Cultivation expanded, pasture lands diminish. The new laws restricted their movements.

 

Q.5. Give two examples to illustrate how the pastoral nomads adjust to seasonal changes and make effective use of available pastures in different places.

 

Ans. (1) The Gaddi shepherds of Himachal Pradesh are a good example. They spend their winter in the low hills of the Shivalik range. Their cattle graze in the scrub forests.

 

2. As summer approaches (i.e. sometime in April) they move north to Lahaul and Spiti. They stay there with their cattle. Some of them even move to higher altitudes as the snow melts. As the summer ends by September they begin their return journey.

 

3.Their return journey is interrupted in the villages of Lahaul and Spiti where they reap their summer harvest and sow their winter crop. They then go down to the Shivalik hills where they stay for the winter. Next April their journey to the north begins again.

 

1. The Gujjar Bakarwals of Jammu and Kashmir also follow the same pattern. During winters they stay in the low Shivalik hills with their herds. The dry scrub forests provide fodder for their cattle. As summer approaches (i.e. by April) they gather for their journey to the valley of Kashmir.

 

2. They cross the Pir Panjal passes and reach the lush green mountain side. They stay here with their cattle till winter approaches (i.e. by September).

 

Q.6 Why did the colonial government pass the Criminal Tribes Act and imposition of Grazing Tax?

 

Ans.1. British officials were suspicious of nomadic people. They distrusted mobile craftsmen and traders who hawked their goods in villages, and pastoralists who changed their places of residence every season, moving in search of good pastures for their herds.

 

2.The colonial government wanted to rule over a settled population. They wanted the rural people to live in villages, in fixed places with fixed rights on particular fields. Such a population was easy to identify and control.

 

3. Those who were settled were seen as peaceable and law-abiding; those who were nomadic were considered to be criminals. Because of all the above reasons, in 1871 the colonial government in India had passed the Criminal Tribes Act.

 

4. By this Act, many communities of craftsmen, traders and pastoralists were classified as criminal tribes. They were stated to be criminal by nature and birth.

 

5. To expand its revenue, the colonial government imposed the grazing tax. Pastoralists had to pay tax on every animal they grazed on the pastures.

 

Q.7. Explain any four laws which were introduced by the colonial government in India which changed the lives of pastoralists.

 

Ans. (i) from the mid-nineteenth century, Wasteland Rules were enacted in various parts of the country. By these rules uncultivated lands were taken over and given to selected individuals.

 

(ii) By the mid-nineteenth century, various Forest Acts were also enacted in different provinces. Through these Acts some forests which produced valuable timber like deodar or sal were declared 'Reserved'. No pastoralist was allowed access to these forests. Other forests were classified as 'protected'.

 

(iii) In 1871, the colonial government in India passed the 'Criminal Tribes Act'. By this Act, many communities of craftsmen, traders and pastoralists were classified as Criminal Tribes. They were stated to be criminal by nature and birth. Once this Act came into force, these communities were expected to live only in notified village settlements.

 

(iv) to expand its revenue, the colonial government looked for every possible source of taxation. So tax was imposed on land, on canal water, on salt, on trade goods, and even on animals (the Grazing Tax).

 

Q.8. Who are Gujjar Bakarwals and Gaddis? What are the similarities between them?

 

And.1 Gujjar Bakarwals are a pastoral community of Jammu and Kashmir. They are great herders of goats and sheep.

 

2.The Gaddis are a prominent pastoral community of Himachal Pradesh. The cycle of seasonal movements is similar in case of Gujjar Bakarwals and Gaddis. The Gaddis too spent their winter in the low hills of Shivalik range, grazing their flocks in scrub forests.

 

3.By April they moved north and spent the summer in Lahaul and Spiti. When the snow melted and high passes were clear, many of them moved on to higher mountain meadows.

 

4 By September they began their return movement. On the way they stopped once again in the villages of Lahaul and Spiti, reaping their summer harvest and sowing their winter crop. 5.Then they descended with their flock to their winter grazing ground on the Shivalik hills. Next April, once again, they began their march with their goats and sheep to the summer meadows.

Q.1. How was the Grazing Tax implemented by the British on the pastoralists during the mid-nineteenth century? Explain. 

 

Ans. 1.Pastoralists had to pay tax on every animal they grazed on the pastures. In most pastoral tracts of India, grazing tax was introduced in the mid-nineteenth century.

 

2.The tax per head of cattle went up rapidly and the system of collection was made increasingly efficient. 3.During the 1850s to the 1880s, the right to collect the tax was auctioned out to contractors. Their contractors tried to extract as high a tax as they could to recover the money they had paid to the state and earn as much profit as they could within the year.

 

4.By the 1880s the government began collecting taxes directly from the pastoralists. Each of them was given a pass. To enter a grazing tract, a cattle herder had to show the pass and pay the tax. The number of cattle heads he had and the amount of tax he paid was entered on the pass.

 

Q.2. Explain factors responsible for the annual movement of the Dhangars.

 

Ans.1. Dhangars were an important pastoral community of Maharashtra. Most of them were shepherds, some were blanket weavers, and still others were buffalo herders.

 

2. They stayed in the central plateau of Maharashtra during the monsoon. This was a semi-arid region with low rainfall and poor soil. It was covered with a thorny scrub. Dhangars sowed bajra there.

 

3. In the monsoon this region became a nast grazing ground for the Dhangar flocks. By October the Dhangars harvested their bajra and started on their move west. After a month, they reached Konkan. This was a flourishing agricultural tract with high rainfall and rich soil. Here the Dhangar shepherds were welcomed by Konkani peasants.

 

4. After the kharif harvest was cut, the fields had to be fertilized and made ready for the rabi harvest. Dhangar flocks manured the fields and fed on the stubble. The Konkani peasants also gave supply of rice which the shepherds took back to the plateau where grain was scarce. 5.With the onset of the monsoon the Dhangars left the Konkan with their flocks and returned to their settlement on the dry plateau. The sheep could not tolerate the wet monsoon conditions.

 

Q.3. Compare and contrast the life of wealthy pastoralists with that of poor pastoralists in Africa.

 

Ans.1. In Maasailand, as elsewhere in Africa, not all pastoralists were equally affected by the changes in the colonial period. Wealthy pastoralists including chiefs were appointed by the British.

 

2.They often accumulated wealth. They had regular income to buy animals, goods and land. They lent money to the poor neighbors to pay taxes. Some of them lived in towns and got involved in trade. Their families stayed back in villages to look after the animals.

 

3These rich pastoralists managed to survive the devastation of wars and drought. But the life of poor pastoralists depended only on their livestock.

 

4. They did not have resources to tide over bad times. In times of war and famine they lost everything. They had to go looking for work in town. Some eked a living as charcoal burners. Others did odd jobs.

 

5. The lucky ones got more regular work in road or building construction.

 

Q4. Comment on the closure of the forests to grazing from the standpoint of (a) a forester (b) a pastoralist. 

 

Ans. 1.The views of a forester: Rules about the use of forest resources were needed as indiscriminate felling of trees had to be stopped; grazing as well, this was the only way of preserving timber.

 

2.We need trees suitable for building ships or railways. We need teak and sal trees. It can be done only if villagers/pastoralists are barred from entering these forests; to stop them from taking anything from the forests. 3.The views of a pastoralist: We need fuel, fodder and leaves. Fruits and tubers are nutritious, Herbs are needed for medicines, wood for agricultural implements like yokes and plows, bamboo for fences and making baskets and umbrellas.

 

4. The Forest Act and closure of forests have deprived us of all these; we cannot also graze our cattle. We cannot also hunt and cannot supplement our food. We have been displaced from our houses in forests.