A abampere (aA) The unit of electric current in the CGSeniu system, defined as that current that, if flowing through two parallel conductors of negligible cross section and infinite length, placed 1 cm apart in vacuo, would produce on each conductor a force of 1 dyne per centimeter of length. 1 abampere = 1 abcoulomb/s = r statampere (where c = speed of light in cm/s) = 10 ampere. aberration Imperfect image formation due to geometric imperfections in the optical elements of a system ablation 1 . The wasting of glacier ice by any process (calving, melting, evaporation, etc.). 2. The shedding of molten material from the outer sur- face of a meteorite or tektite during its flight through the atmosphere. absolute age The age of a natural substance, of a fossil or living organism, or of an artifact, obtained by means of an absolute dating method. See absolute dating method. absolute density Density in kg/m' or, more commonly, in g/cm\ both at STP. Cf. density, relative density abso
Confrontation of Cultures class 11 history MCQ & SAQ
Confrontation of Cultures class 11 history NCERT SOLUTION
Compare the civilisation of the Aztecs with that of the Mesopotamians.
Answer:
The civilisation of the Aztecs:
Aztec society was hierarchical. Nobility included priests and other higher social groups.
Aztecs made chinampas (artificial islands) in Lake Mexico, by weaving huge reed-mats and covering them with mud and plants.
They cultivated corn, beans, squash, pumpkins, manioc root and potatoes.
Land was owned not by individuals but by clans. Peasants worked in the lands owned by the nobility.
The Aztecs made sure that all children went to school.
The civilisation of the Mesopotamians:
Mesopotamia (land between the Euphrates and the Tigris rivers) is known as the "cradle of civilization".
It was a fertile land and its agriculture produced surplus foodgrains. However, its mineral resources were few.
In southern Mesopotamia, Sumerians built big cities and developed the earliest-known writing called cuneiform.
In cities, there were schools, where students read and copied cuneiform tablets.
What were the new developments helping European navigation in the fifteenth century?
Ans:wer
Though the magnetic compass had been invented in 1380 itself, only in the fifteenth century did European explorers use it.
Gradually, larger ships were built for voyages; now explorers could carry a huge quantity of cargo and protect themselves from enemies in their strong ships.
Books on cosmography and geography were published. In 1477, Ptolemy's Geography was published. Europeans gained knowledge of the world from this book.
Give reasons for Spain and Portugal being the first in the fifteenth century to venture across the Atlantic.
Answer:
Spanish and Portuguese were the first in the fifteenth century to venture across the Atlantic, due to a combination of three motives: economic, religious and political.
Economic motives:
The decline of economy and long-distance trade from the mid fourteenth century, destruction of population by plague and wars, and shortage of gold and silver for minting coins compelled European explorers to search for new lands for raw materials and sea routes for trade.
Religious motives:
Discovering new lands brought many more people into the fold of Christianity; devout Christian Europeans were ready to face adventure to convert the natives.
Political motives:
Due to the beginning of the ‘Crusades’ (religious wars) against Turks, Europeans started trading with Asia, and developed a taste for Asian goods, especially spices. In order to control their trade politically, the European countries established colonies and exploited natural resources.
What new food items were transmitted from South America to the rest of the world?
Answer:
Food items such as tobacco, potatoes, cane sugar, cacao and rubber were transmitted from South America to the rest of the world.
Answer in a short essay
Write an account of the journey of an African boy of seventeen captured and taken to Brazil as a slave.
Answer:
Slaves who were captured from the areas of Goree, Senegambia and Boland in Africa were taken to Europe in slave ships.
Their journey towards Brazil was long and cruel. Their hands, legs and necks were shackled together; many died of fatal diseases, and without water and food, before reaching the destination. Some of slaves committed suicides by jumping into the ocean.
How did the 'discovery' of South America lead to the development of European colonialism?
Answer:
(i) After the 'discovery' of South America, surplus gold and silver was shipped to Spain from South American mines between 1560 and 1600. It resulted in the growth of international trade and industrialisation.
(iii)However, Spain and Portugal did not benefit from it because they did not invest the resources in further trade.
(iv)Instead, it was the countries bordering the Atlantic, particularly England, France, Belgium and Holland, that took advantage of the 'discoveries'.
(v)Their merchants formed joint stock companies and sent out trading expeditions, established colonies and introduced Europeans to the products of the New World, including tobacco, potatoes, cane sugar, cacao and rubber.
Confrontation of Cultures class 11 history MCQ
1. The magnetic compass, used in explorations, had been known since
(a) 1377.
(b) 1378.
(c) 1379.
(d) 1380.
► (d) 1380.
2. When Christopher Columbus reached the islands of Cubanascan, he mistook it for
(a) Andaman
(b) Australia
(c) Japan
(d) Malasiya
► (c) Japan
3. In 1571, the Philippines was conquered by
(a) Spain.
(b) Portugal.
(c) Holland.
(d) England.
► (a) Spain.
4. In 1519, the group that was trying to secede from the Aztec rule of king Montezuma was
(a) Castillo.
(b) Malinchista.
(c) Tlaxcalans.
(d) Totonacs.
► (d) Totonacs.
5. The first formal Portuguese capital in South America was
(a) Salvador.
(b) Cuba.
(c) Bahamas.
(d) Bahia/Salvador.
► (d) Bahia/Salvador.
6. The civilisation which was politically less powerful than the Aztecs in Mexico was
(a) Arawaks.
(b) Caribs.
(c) Incas.
(d) Mayas.
► (d) Mayas.
7. People who believe that inanimate objects may have life or a soul are called
(a) agnostics.
(b) anthropologists.
(c) animists.
(d) atheists.
► (c) animists.
8. The cultures of the Aztecs had certain features in common with the cultures of the:
(a) Caribs
(b) Tupinambas
(c) Arawaks
(d) Incas
► (d) Incas
9. Columbus’ expedition that was sanctioned by the Spanish authorities set sail from the port of Palos on
(a) 3 January 1942.
(b) 3 February 1942.
(c) 3 March 1942.
(d) 3 August 1492.
► (d) 3 August 1492.
10. The ruler who ascended the throne after a civil war was
(a) Atahualpa
(b) Cuauhtemoc
(c) Montezuma
(d) Manco Capac
► (a) Atahualpa
11. Who made ‘Chinampas’, an artificial island in Lake Mexico.
(a) Cuauhtemoc
(b) Tupinambas
(c) Aztecs
(d) Agnostics
► (c) Aztecs
12. Who destroyed the Inca civilisation?
(a) German
(b) British
(c) Spanish
(d) French
► (c) Spanish
13. The Aztecs got power when they destroyed the power of ______.
(a) Montezuma
(b) Incas
(c) Maya
(d) Toltecs
► (d) Toltecs
14. Who built roads through mountains from Ecuador to Chile.
(a) German
(b) Incas
(c) Maya
(d) Aztecs
► (b) Incas
15. _______ was the science of mapping the universe.
(a) Cosmography
(b) Cartography
(c) Calligraphy
(d) Pictography
► (a) Cosmography
Question : Columbus’ expedition that was sanctioned by the Spanish authorities set sail from the port of Palos on
(a) 3 January 1942.
(b) 3 February 1942.
(c) 3 March 1942.
(d) 3 August 1492.
Answer : D
Question : When Christopher Columbus reached the islands of Cubanascan, he mistook it for
(a) Andaman
(b) Australia
(c) Japan
(d) Malaysia
Answer : C
Question : Columbus’ expedition that was sanctioned by the Spanish authorities set sail from the port of Palos on
(a) 3 January 1942.
(b) 3 February 1942.
(c) 3 March 1942.
(d) 3 August 1492.
Answer : D
Question : Columbus’ expedition that was sanctioned by the Spanish authorities set sail from the port of Palos on
(a) 3 January 1942.
(b) 3 February 1942.
(c) 3 March 1942.
(d) 3 August 1492.
Answer : D
Question : The Portuguese would have thought of importing slaves from Africa because
(a) Slaves were openly sold in Africa
(b) Sugar mills were being established in Brazil
(c) Local natives had abandoned their homes and hearth
(d) Slaves could further be exported to Portugal.
Answer : C
Question : In 1519, the group that was trying to secede from the Aztec rule of king Montezuma was
(a) Castillo.
(b) Malinchista.
(c) Tlaxcalans.
(d) Totonacs.
Answer : D
Question : In 1519, the group that was trying to secede from the Aztec rule of king Montezuma was
(a) Castillo
(b) Malinchista
(c) Tlaxcalans
(d) Totonacs
Answer : D
Question : The civilization which was politically less powerful than the Aztecs in Mexico was
(a) Arawaks
(b) Mayas
(c) Incas
(d) Caribs
Answer : B
Question : Could Corrtes destroyed Aztecs empire because
(a) He was an expert Army Commander.
(b) He bagged help from the Totonacs.
(c) He was supported by artillery.
(d) He was shrewd, manipulator and fraudulent.
Answer : D
Question : The first formal Portuguese capital in South America was
(a) Salvador.
(b) Cuba.
(c) Bahamas.
(d) Bahia/Salvador.
Answer : D
Question : Who destroyed the Inca civilisation?
(a) German
(b) British
(c) Spanish
(d) French
Answer : C
Question : The magnetic compass, used in explorations, had been known since
(a) 1377.
(b) 1378.
(c) 1379.
(d) 1380.
Answer : D
Question : Aztecs got power when they destroyed the power of __
(a) Montezuma
(b) Incas
(c) Maya
(d) Toltecs
Answer : D
Question : People who believe that inanimate objects may have life or a soul are called
(a) agnostics.
(b) anthropologists.
(c) animists.
(d) atheists.
Answer : C
Confrontation of Cultures class 11 history SAQ
Q. 1. What were ‘Chinampas’ of the Aztecs?
Ans. ‘Chinampas’ were artificial islands in Lake Mexico. They were made by the Aztecs by weaving huge reed-mats and covering them with mud and plants. These were exceptionally fertile.
Q. 2. State two features of early American civilisations.
Ans. Two features of early American civilisations were as follows : (i) They practiced agriculture and corn was their major food item. (ii) They were not familiar with cattle-rearing.
Q. . What were two remarkable achievements of the Mayas?
Ans. Following were two remarkable achievements of the Mayas:
(i) The Mayas had a good knowledge of mathematics. They used a special sign for zero.
(ii) They devised a pictographic form of writing.
Q. . State two similarities between ancient Egyptian and Mayan calendars.
Ans. (i) Both the Egyptian and Mayan calendars were solar calendars. Both were based on the movement of the sun.
(ii) A year had 365 days in both the calendars.
Q. . State two differences between ancient Egyptian and Mayan calendars.
Ans. (i) There were 12 months in the Egyptian calendar, while a year had 18 months in Mayan calendar.
(ii) A month had 20 days in Mayan calendar, whereas there were 30 days in a month in the Egyptian calendar.
Q. . Write two features of Mayan civilization.
Ans. (i) Agriculture was their main occupation and corn was their major food item.
(ii) They devised a pictographic form of writing.
Q. 7. Write the main centers of Inca civilization.
Ans.
Q. 8. Write about the decline of early American civilisations.
Ans. In 1532, the Spanish army, under Francisco Pizarro, destroyed the Inca civilization. In this way in the 16th century, the American civilisation declined due to foreign invasion.
Q. 9. Write about the expansion of Maya civilization.
Ans. Between 300 and 900 CEMaya civilization was at its peak of development. It was stretched in a large part of central America. Regions of Mexico, Guatemala, Honduras and Ukatan were included in it.
Q. 10. When and how did the Aztecs get power? In many areas, their kingdom was expanded.
Ans. The Aztecs got power in 1220 CE when they destroyed the power of the Toltecs. The expansion of their kingdom was around two lakh sq. km.
Q. 11. What was the main political achievement of the Aztec civilisation?
Ans. Aztecs loved the wars. So they established a powerful kingdom with their bravery.
Q. 12. Write notes on the American economy during Maya civilization.
Ans. During the Maya civilization, the American civilization was based on agriculture. Except this, weaving was another occupation of people.
Q. 13. Write any two features of the religion of Mayans.
Ans. (i) People of Maya civilization worshiped gods like Forest, Rain, Fertility, Fire, Corn, etc.
(ii) People sacrificed only one part of their body to make their gods, goddesses happy. There was a custom of human sacrifice.
Q. 14. The Incas were magnificent builders. Give two examples.
Ans. Incas were actually magnificent builders.
(i) Incas built roads through mountains from Ecuador to Chile.
(ii) They built their forts with stone slabs which were so perfectly cut that they hardly required any mortar.
Q. 15. How did the Incas cope with the infertile soil conditions?
Ans. Agriculture was the main occupation of the Incas. But the land was not so fertile. The Incas terraced hillsides and developed systems of drainage and irrigation to cope with the infertile soil conditions.
Q. 16. Some features of the cultures of the Aztecs and Incas were very different from the European culture. How?
Ans. (i) Aztec and Inca societies were hierarchical, but there was no private ownership of resources by a few people, as in Europe.
(ii) In Aztec and Inca civilisations, priests and shamans were accorded a higher status. Although large temples were built in which gold was used ritually, yet there was no great value placed on gold or silver. This was in marked contrast to contemporary European society.
Q. 17. What was Cosmography?
Ans. Cosmography was the science of mapping the universe. Both heaven and earth are described in it. But it was seen as distinct from astronomy and geography.
Q. 18. What was Reconquista?
Ans. Reconquista was the military reconquest of the Iberian Peninsula by the Christian Kings from the Arabs in 1492 CE.
Q. 19. What was Capitulation?
Ans. Capitulation were some types of contracts.
Under these contracts, the Spanish ruler claimed rights of sovereignty over newly conquered regions.
They also gave rewards, titles and the right to govern the conquered lands to leaders of the expeditions.
Q. 20. To which country Columbus belonged?
When did he reach the Indies?
Ans. Columbus was a citizen of Italy. On 12th April, 1492, he reached the Indies.
Q. 1. What were the greatest achievements of the Mayans?
Ans. Following were the greatest achievements of the Mayans:
(i) Calendar. Like the solar calendar, a Mayan year too had 365 days. The Mayans divided a year into 12 months. Each month had 20 days. The remaining five days were regarded as unlucky by the Mayans.
(ii) Knowledge of Mathematics. The Mayans had a great knowledge of mathematics. They used a special sign for zero.
(iii) Hieroglyphic Script. The Mayans made their own script. This script was a combination of pictorial signs and sounds.
(iv) Artistic Achievements. The Mayans were efficient in architecture, painting and sculpture. They built magnificent pyramids, crossings, temples and observatories.
(v) Utensils made on Wheels. The Mayans used utensils made on wheels.
Q. 2. Compare the calendars of ancient Egypt and the Maya.
Ans. Similarities.
(i) Both the Egyptian and the Mayan calendars were solar calendars., i.e. both of them were based on movement of the sun.
(ii) A year had 365 days in both the calendars.
Dissimilarities.
(i) There were 12 months in a year in the Egyptian calendar, whereas the Mayan calendar had 18 months in a year.
(ii) Each month was of 20 days in the Mayan calendar, while each month had 30 days in the Egyptian calendar.
(iii) The Mayans regarded the remaining five days of the month as unlucky, whereas the Egyptians celebrated the remaining five days.
Q. 3. Discuss the achievements of the Inca and the Aztec civilisations.
Ans. Achievements of the Inca Civilisation.
Achievements of the Inca civilisation were as follows:
(i) Efficient Administration. The Inca empire was divided into four parts. Each part was ruled over by a noble.
(ii) Developed Towns. The Inca empire had many towns. There were many huge buildings in these towns. These buildings included forts, temples, palaces, etc.
(iii) Arts and Crafts. Arts and crafts of the Inca empire were much developed.
(iv) Use of Metals. People of the Inca culture made ornaments of gold, silver and bronze. They used bronze in making their weapons and tools.
Achievements of the Aztec Civilisation.
Achievements of the Aztec civilisation are given below:
(a) Powerful Empire. The Aztecs established a powerful empire. This empire was divided into 38 provinces.
(b) Calendar. The Aztecs had their own calendar.
According to their calendar, there were only 260 days in a year.
(c) Use of Metals. The Aztecs had learnt how to melt soft metals.
(d) Religion. They worshiped several gods and goddesses such as the sun.
Q. 4. In what sense were physical cultures of the American civilisations different from those of the Asian and European civilisations?
Ans. Physical cultures of the American civilisation differed from those of the Asian and European civilisations in the following sense:
(i) People of the early American civilisations had a great knowledge of agriculture but they were not familiar with cattle-rearing. Religiously, corn cultivation was important to them. But people of the ancient Asian and European civilisations started agriculture and cattle-rearing side by side.
(ii) People of the early American civilisations began the use of metal only to make ornaments. Still they were efficient in crafts such as utensil-making, weaving, feather mozek-making and pear-making.
This characteristic of the early American civilisation was different from those of the ancient Asian and European civilisations.
(iii) People of the ancient American civilisation did not know how to use plows and wheels. But people of the ancient Asian and European civilisations knew how to use these.
(iv) The early Americans used only stone tools for a long time. Even monumental architecture and beautiful engraved statues of the great American civilisations were made by using only stone tools. From this aspect, people of the ancient Asian and European civilisations were far much ahead. They had almost abandoned stone weapons and began to use strong weapons made of iron.
(v) The early Americans had no system of writing.
On the other hand, developed civilisations of Asia and Europe had their own systems of writing.
Q. 5. Throw light on scientific achievements of the American civilisations.
Ans. Scientific achievements of the American civilisations are described below:
(i) Calendar. People prepared their own calendar. According to this calendar, a year has 365 days. The Mayans divided a year into 18 months. Each month of this year had 20 days. The Mayans regarded the remaining five days as unlucky. The Aztecs too made their own calendar which was similar to that of the Mayans.
(ii) Knowledge of Mathematics. The Mayans also had a good knowledge of mathematics. They used a special sign for zero.
(iii) Hieroglyphic Script. The Mayans invented their own script. This script was a combination of pictorial signs and sounds.
(iv) Medicine. Medicine was greatly developed in the Inca civilization. People used herbs for treatment of different diseases. There have been found human skulls and skeletons. These show that people also knew about surgery.
Q. 6. Write a brief note on the early people and geographical features of America.
Ans. For thousands of years, people have been inhabiting North and South America and nearby islands. People from Asia and the South Sea Islands have also been living there. South America was covered with dense forests and mountains. World’s largest river, the Amazon, flows through miles of dense forests of this region. In central America, in Mexico, dense settled areas of habitation were there along the coast and in the plains while villages were scattered over forested areas.
Q. 7. Where did the Arawakian Lucayos live?
Discuss the main characteristics of them and their culture.
Ans. The Arawakian Lucayos lived on hundreds of small islands in the Caribbean Sea and the Greater Antilles. A fierce tribe, the Caribs had expelled them from the Lesser Antilles. On the other hand, the Arawaks preferred negotiations over conflict. They were very good in boat-building. They built their canoes from hollow tree trunks and sailed the open sea in them.
They lived by hunting, fishing and agriculture. They grew corn, sweet potatoes, tubers and cassava.
The Arawakian Culture. The Arawakian Lucayos produced food collectively so that everyone in the community could be fed. Polygamy was quite common. Whole of the community was organized under clan elders. They were animists. Like in other societies, shamans also played an important role as healers and intermediaries between this world and that of the supernatural.
Q. 8. What was the Spanish policy towards the Arawaks? What was its result?
Ans. The Spanish attached too much value to gold, while the Arawaks did not. The Arawaks were quite happy to exchange gold for glass beads brought by the Spanish, because it looked beautiful. They were also very skilled in the art of weaving. The hammock was one of their specialities which the Spanish liked very much.
The Arawaks were quite generous. They were always ready to cooperate with the Spanish in their search for gold. But later on the Spanish policy towards the Arawaks became brutal. That is why Arawaks resisted it with violent incidents. This resistance was to have disastrous results for them.
As a result, the Arawaks and their way of life ended within 25 years.
Q. 9. What were the Tupinambas ? Why did the Europeans envy them?
Ans. The Tupinambas lived on the east coast of South America and in villages in the Brazil wood forests. They had no access to iron which is why they were unable to clear the dense forests for cultivation.
But they had a very good supply of vegetables, fruits and fish. So they were not dependent solely on agriculture. There was no king, army or church to regulate their lives. So the Europeans who met them envied their happy freedom.
Q. 10. Discuss some of the important features of economic and cultural life of the Aztecs.
Ans. Some of the important features of economic and cultural life of the Aztecs were as given ahead:
(i) The Aztecs had limited land, so they undertook reclamations. They made artificial islands in Lake Mexico by weaving reed mats and covering them with mud and plants. These lakes were called Chinampas.
(ii) Between the exceptionally fertile islands, they constructed canals on which the capital city Tenochtitlan was built in 1325. Its palaces and pyramids rose dramatically out of the lake.
(iii) The most impressive temples of the Aztecs were dedicated to the gods of war and the sun. This was because the Aztecs were frequently engaged in war.
(iv) Rural society was the base of the Aztec society.
Crops like corn, squash, beans, maniac root, pumpkins, potatoes, etc., were cultivated by the people. The Clan was the owner of the land and it was not owned by any individual. The clans also organized public construction works. Peasants, like European serfs, cultivated land owned by the nobility. In exchange, they obtained a part of the harvest.
Do you think omens, hallucinations, etc. of events are nothing? else but a manifestation of fear penetrating the heart of a concerned man?
Answer:
Yes, the emotion of fear goes deep in the subconscious mind. There its impulses distort the digestive, circulatory, metabolism, and ever-defeating systems of the body. It results in ailing and sparks in the nervous system causing hallucination. The same had happened to the Aztec
King, Montezuma. Stimuli to fear were-
The aggressive tendency of Cortes and his soldiers,
Well- trained horses,
An organized and firm battalion of artillery.
Discuss the difference between the Arawaks and the Spanish. Which of these differences would you consider most significant and why?
Answer:
Arawaks were the simplest and complacent people while the Spanish were shrewd and fraudulent. They greeted each other warmly when explorers from Spain reached the sea-shore. The Spanish and Portuguese cheated them of gold, fruits, vegetables, and fish in exchange for glass beads, iron knives, Drager, swords, etc. They befriended Arawaks and Brazilians get physical work done by them for their advantage, obtained a room-full gold in ransom and then, planned to slaughter them at the altar of their passion for gold, silver, timber, wood, and finally, seizure of the political machinery from them to establish their own colonies.
Arawaks and Brazilians were agriculturists and living a simple life while the Spanish and Portuguese were pathogen like struck to them and occupied their political, social, economic systems for their benefits until they ruined them.
The most significant difference between natives of South America and those of Spanish and Portuguese was that of Humanity and debility. Devils were the Europeans who plunged deep in their complacent manners of living and terrorized them with artillery, tricks and cheat.
Examine a detailed physical map of South America. To what extent do you think geography influenced the developments of the Inca empire?
Answer:
Location-Inca empire was extended from Ecuador to Chile. It was surrounded by the Pacific Ocean in the west, the Caribbean Sea in the north, the Bellingshausen Sea, the Weddell Sea in the South and North, and also South Atlantic Sea in the east.
Potentiality-
Maritime trade and Commerce in such locations could rise under the Inca empire.
The soil here was fertile enough to grow sugarcane, com, potatoes, etc. They opted for reclamation of land and terrace cultivation measures.
Abundant trees/forests and continuous supply of water through the Amazon, the largest river in the world.
Owing to the closer to the ocean, a specific town planning could be seen in Mexico. Here, the buildings, palaces, etc. were built on the water.
They used to row on the chest of the ocean using Dugout Canoes.
They were animists i.e. ones who can see a sensitive soul in insensitive or inert objects.
A conclusion-The major influence of Geography on Inca civilization, we observe its proximity to the sea. Abundant water bodies would have inspired Inca people to promote maritime trade. Its effect on the soil can also not be ruled out. Sea-water maintains a moderate temperature, hence, we see Aztecs, Incas, and Mayas civilizations brimming with simple and innocent people cheated and brutally killed by the Europeans.
What according to you were the reasons for people from different European countries wanting to take the risk of going on a voyage of discovery?
Answer:
Reasons for Europeans keen interest in going on voyages
The European economy met an acute recession during the 14th and 15th Centuries owing to depletion of gold and silver stock in mines, epidemics, and the decline of feudalism, etc.
Christianity tried to bring more people to unknown lands in its fold in order to give birth to colonialism. The Crusades brought Europeans to Asia and its several countries; hence, there was a great demand for silk, spices, musk, muslin, etc. in Europe.
The success of Reconquista (Reconquest of Iberian peninsula) encouraged the youth to execute capitulations (Contracts) from one nobility Eg. Pizarro lured the King of Spain.
Fifth and the last stimulus was that the Pope had given sanction to Spain and Portugal to prepare an environment in which youth would be trained to go on sea voyages to new lands till then undiscovered.
Analyze the effects of contact with the Europeans on the native people of South America. Describe their reactions to the sailors and the Jesuits.
Answer:
Effects of European Contacts in native people of South America
Those people were cheated, killed, and enslaved.
Their simplicity and detachment for gold resulted in their misery/puzzle.
They were befooled by Europeans as they promulgated false decrees and laws.
They had to leave their house and hearths in order to evade slavery so imposed on them. Their settled life ended again in hunting and food gathering.
The cereals (i.e. potato, cassava, tobacco, cane-sugar, cacao) and cash crops like rubber were exported to Europe.
The population of native people had reduced from 70 million to 3.5 million during the period, South America was explored and colonies set-up there.
Their reactions to the settlers and the Jesuits were surprising as they considered them foolish enough to abandon their native country, community, and families and wander in alien lands.
Write a note on Caribbean Communities.
Answer:
There were two tribes namely, Arawakkian Lucayos and Caribs. Arawakan were God-fearing and compromising people while Caribs were cruel and fierce. The former tribe was living in the Bahamas and the Greater Antilles while the latter in the Lesser Antilles. These all were small islands between the Caribbean and Atlantic oceans. These were communities that lived on hunting, fishing, and agriculture.
They used to produce food collectively and feed everyone in the community. Arawaks were animists.
Write a brief note on Brazilian Communities.
Answer:
It was a tribe of Tupinamba living on the east coast of South America. Iron was unknown to this tribe, hence they could not tend to farm. There were fruits, vegetables, and fish in ample quantities; hence, they did not depend on agriculture to survive. They were simple people who agreed to cut the trees and carry the logs to the ships in exchange for iron knives and saws. They provided Europeans with loads of monkeys, honey, hens, wax, cotton thread, etc. free of cost. They were complacent people with their motherland and the vicissitudes whatsoever existed there.
Write a brief note on the Aztecs.
Answer:
Aztecs were a tribe that migrated from North America to its central valley which they named Mexico after the name of their God Mexitli. It was a society in three order i.e. Priests, nobility, and common people. Special respect was given to warriors, priests, and nobles. They took measures of reclamation in order to create artificial islands.
Buildings were made on the lake. Com, beans, squash, pumpkins, manioc root, and potatoes were the main crops grown there. European serfs were engaged in the cultivation of the lands owned by the nobility. School education was preferred but there was the majority of poor who used to sell their children for a limited period of their working as slaves under nobles.
Give a brief account of the Mayan Society.
Answer:
This culture too was developed in Mexico between the eleventh and fourteenth centuries. Cultivation of cereal crops was the main „ occupation of these people. Society was divided into inking, priests, chiefs, and common people. These people devised a pictographic form of writing. Religious ceremonies were associated with planting, growing; and harvesting corn.
Give a brief account of the Incas of Peru.
Answer:
It was the largest of the civilizations in South America. Its 5 capital was in Cuzco. It was extended up to 3,000 miles from Ecuador to Chile. Quechua was the court language here. It was like a confederacy in which each tribe ruled independently by the Council of Elders. All: tribes were finally under the control of the Incas people. They were excellent architects, however, unknown to the wheel and its usages. System of: drainage, irrigation, and terraced farming were preferred for the production of com and potatoes. They excelled in weaving and pottery arts. Standard mathematical units were
Describe what Pablo Neruda states about the condition of artisans, masons, and potters in Machu Picchu, a hilltop town under the Incas Society.
Answer:
He states that the architecture, masonry, and other crafts were appreciated by the visitors of this town but hardly anybody would understand the pain and pains endured by the artisans. The masons were forcibly engaged. Potters by virtue of their hard work made decent potteries. In case, any ornament not found with exquisite craft, the jewelers were punished with their fingers crushed mercilessly
Farmers who could not pay tithe (tax) in time due to crop failure were killed.
Describe similarities between Aztecs and Incas Cultures.
Answer:
There was no private ownership of resources in both civilizations.
Both had developed a confederate System of ruling.
The King was considered supreme in both cultures.
Both cultures excelled in architecture, pottery, weaving, etc. arts.
Both-had agriculture as the main occupation of people.
Discuss the cruelty inflicted by the Spanish on the people of two cultures i.e. Aztecs and Incas.
Answer:
Hernan Cortes befriended the tribe Totonacs, i.e. rival to the Aztecs and thus, came to know all loopholes and weaknesses of the Aztec empire under the King, Montezuma. He sought out Dona Marina, a woman from the Tobasco tribe who was an expert in three local languages and thus, interpreted everything that wished to know by Cortes. He understood that Montezuma was a god-fearing and simple king, intrigued by the friendly way. He entered as a guest to the King and corrupted the bureaucracy and misdirected the populace.
When he got control of the nerves of the System, the King was detained under house arrest. Cortes began installing Christian icons in the Aztec temples. The King could do nothing but to compromise the installation of both images side by side in each temple. Thus, the King’s depression ended in his suicide. In the meantime, smallpox spread and took a toll on numerous people. Finally, Cortes with his 180 soldiers and 30 horses could defeat the Aztecs and became Captain-General of New Spain in Mexico.
So far as Incas affairs were concerned, it can be stated that Francisco Pizarro who had heard about the prosperous civilization of Incas, lured the King of Spain with-an assurance that he shall conquer the Incas empire subject to soldiers and other required means including weapons are provided with him. Trickily, he captured and arrested the King, Atahualpa. He then took ransom for his release but killed him brutally with a room-full of gold; he had obtained from a hint.
Give a brief account of the atrocities inflicted by the Portuguese on Brazilian people.
Answer:
They cheated Brazilians in exchange for iron knives and saws for loads of hens, monkeys, parrots, honey, wax, and cotton thread.
They began the trade of Brazilian wood for the manufacture of red dye and drove away the French traders. Thus, they destroyed the vegetal cover of the earth there.
As per the rules framed for fourteen captaincies in Brazil by the King of Portugal, the Portuguese settlers were given land ownership right along with the right to make local people into slaves.
They began to grow sugarcane in large plantations when the forest was cleared and established sugar mills there. They took local, slaves yoking with exhausting and dreary work. In case, the natives refused, Portuguese mill-owners resorted to kidnapping them to get work done as slaves.
Conclusion-The cruelty practiced by the Portuguese had compelled the native people to retreat into the forest and thus, gradually; European towns were established on the land of the native people there.
What were the factors demanding more slaves in South America?
Answer:
Those factors were as under-
Forest for timber wood trading was cleared and the Portuguese had started growing sugar cane in large fields there. Sugar mills were also established.
Gold mines were discovered in Brazil during 1700 CE. Mining staff was, therefore, required.
There was imposed ban on slavery in the 1780 s. Thus, it had become impossible for Portuguese mill owners and landlords to get the natives to be enslaved.
It came into their knowledge that the slave trade in Africa was conducted even by native people there, in exchange for cereals like maize, manioc, and cassava.
Confrontation of Cultures class 11 history long question
Q. 1. What do you know about the Arawakian Lucayos and their way of life?
Ans. The Arawakian Lucayos inhabited hundreds of small islands in the Caribbean Sea and the Greater Antilles. They had been expelled from the Lesser Antilles by a fierce tad so much more beautiful. They were highly skilled in the art of weaving. The hammock was one of their specialities, which the Europeans liked very much.
The Arawakian Lucayos were very generous. They were always ready to collaborate with the Spanish in their search for gold. When the Spanish policy became brutal, they were forced to resist. For this they had to have disastrous consequences. Within 25 years of contact with Spanish, very little remained of the Arawakian Lucayos or their way of life.
Q. 2. Discuss the chief features of the major civilisations of the early Americas.
Ans. Several civilisations flourished in the early Americas but the Maya, Aztec and Inca civilisations were prominent among them.
(a) The Maya Civilisation: The Maya civilisation flourished around 1500 A.D. It spread to a large part of Central America. Chichen and Itza were the main centers of this civilisation. People of this civilisation knew little about metals. Still they made many significant achievements. Chief features of the Mayan civilisation are described below:
(i) These people lived in colonies near their fields.
Their food included corn, beans, potatoes, papaya, squash and chili. They used to wear cotton clothes.
They also used earthen utensils made on the wheel.
(ii) Agriculture was their main occupation. They tried to please their gods in order to produce maximum corn for food.
(iii) They believed in many types of religious ceremonies and rituals. A game of rubber ball was one of their religious ceremonies. They had many gods among whom the gods of fire and corn were the main.
They performed sacrifices to please their gods.
(iv) Their script was pictorial. At times vowels were also used.
(v) They built many splendid pyramids, crossings, observatories and temples. They were skilled in sculpting and painting.
(vi) They made a solar calendar, according to which a year had 365 days. They showed their brilliance in the knowledge of mathematics, hieroglyphic writing and use of paper.
(b) The Aztec Civilisation: The Aztec civilisation developed in the Americas after the decline of the Mayan civilisation in the twelfth century. The Aztecs, known as Tenocas, set up two capitals, namely Tenochtitlan and Teleteloco.
Chief features of civilisation of these people are given below:
(i) Their empire expanded over two lac square km. It had been divided into 38 provinces. Each province was ruled by a governor.
(ii) They worshiped many gods and goddesses, among whom the god of sun and the goddess of food were the main. They regarded the goddess of food as the mother of other gods.
(iii) These people had learnt how to melt metals and use them.
(iv) They made a calendar related to religious functions. According to it, there were 260 days in a year.
(c) The Inca Civilisation: This civilisation was founded by the Incas. They developed their civilisation in the Indies region of the Americas between the fourteenth and the fifteenth centuries.
Chief features of this civilisation were as follows:
(i) The Incas established a vast empire, which had many large towns. The town Cuzco was the main center of this empire. Whole of the empire was divided into four parts. Each part was ruled over by a noble.
(ii) They constructed splendid forts, roads and temples in towns.
(iii) They made terraced fields and cultivated corn, potato, sweet potato, etc.
(iv) Food grains were kept safe in large governmental godowns for use in crisis.
(v) Some people made earthen utensils, woolen cloth and obtained wool from llamas and alpacas.
(vi) They made ornaments of gold, silver and copper. Weapons and tools were made of bronze.
(vii) They made progress in medicine and surgery.
Q. 3. Discuss the social system and architecture of the early civilisations of the Americas.
Ans. Main features of the early civilisations of the Americas, viz. the Maya, Inca and Aztec, were as follows:
I. Social System
(i) Priests held a much higher place in the Mayan society.
(ii) In time of the Inca civilization, American society had enlarged. The king possessed the most significant place in society, who was regarded as the representative of the sun on the earth. Then there came the places of the nobility and priestly class.
(iii) The whole land of the state was under possession of the king. He distributed it amongst peasants in accordance with the size of their families.
Nobles, priests and state officials got food grains from governmental godowns. But when crops were destroyed, the general public was also given foodgrains from governmental godowns.
(iv) Life was much planned in the Inca society.
The minimum age for marriage of a boy was fixed at 24 years and that of a girl was 18 years. Trees and cattle were given complete protection.
(v) Laws were very rigid in the Inca society. One who violated the law was burnt alive. Tongue of a liar was nailed. Bodies of thieves were stamped.
(vi) Soldiers enjoy special privileges in the Aztec society. State officials were selected from respected families.
II. Architecture
The Americans made great progress in architecture. Their palaces, temples and other buildings were so beautiful that they are appreciated by visitors even today. A building was often constructed on a pyramid. Some of the buildings were 200 feet high. The sun pyramid in Mexico is 216 feet high. It is a square, which is spread over an area of 750 square feet. Buildings were decorated with stone statues and paintings. There was an observatory at Copan.
Magnificent buildings were also constructed in the Inca civilization. The sun temple at Cuzco is the greatest specimen of architecture of the Inca civilization. Besides, forts, roads, bridges and palaces had also been beautifully built. Large pieces of stone were used in the construction of buildings. These buildings had greatly increased the beauty of towns.
The Aztec capital Tenochtitlan was counted in the most beautiful towns of Central America. The Incan engineering was very famous. In the town Cuzco, there was a series of roads which connected all parts of the empire with each other. Canals were dug in towns for irrigation.
Q. 4. Write down about the society, religion and science of the native Mayan civilization of the Americas.
Ans. The Mayan civilisation possessed a significant place in the native American civilisations. Chief features of society, religion and science of this civilisation are described as under:
(i) Society: The Mayan society was dominated by priests. They were greatly respected. In the city states of Chichen and Itza of this civilization, they had full control of the government. They could act arbitrarily in the state, but at the local level there was a provision of self-government.
Economy of the Mayan civilisation was based on agriculture. Corn was the main crop of the Mayans.
Some people were engaged in weaving and dyeing of clothes and some in other handicrafts. Corn, beans, potato, papaya, etc., were major food items of people.
They also used chillies.
(ii) Religion: The Mayan people worshiped many gods and goddesses. These included the gods of forest, rain, fertility, fire and corn. People threw their valuable goods into the water for more rain. Some people offered a part of their body to please gods. Human sacrifice was also in practice.
(iii) Science: (a) The Mayans made a great progress in science. They invented a calendar. This calendar symbolized their progress in astronomy.
According to this calendar, there were 365 days and 18 months in a year. Each month had 20 days.
(b) In mathematics, the Mayas provided the knowledge of zero.
(c) The use of paper and hieroglyphic script were their other major achievements.
In fact, the Mayan civilisation did not lag behind other American civilisations in any aspect.
Q. 5. Who were the Aztecs? Discuss the main features of their civilisation and culture.
Ans. The Aztecs were the people who had migrated from the north into the central valley of Mexico in the twelfth century. They defeated various tribes in order to expand their empire. The defeated tribes were forced to pay tribute.
Main features of the Aztec civilisation and culture were as follows:
(i) Society: Aztec society was actually a hierarchical society. Nobles, priests and others, who were given the rank, were included in the nobility.
The hereditary nobles were small in number. They were given the senior positions in the army, the priesthood and the government. The nobles chose their leader among them who ruled until his death. The king was observed as the representative of the sun on earth. Three groups were most respected in the society and these were warriors, priests and nobles.
Traders were also given a number of privileges. They often worked for the government as ambassadors and spies. Except for these physicians, talented artists and wise teachers were also respected in the society.
(ii) Reclamations and Construction Works: The Aztecs had limited land, so they undertook reclamations. They made artificial islands called Chinampas in Lake Mexico by weaving huge reed mats and covering them with mud and plants. Canals were constructed between these exceptionally fertile islands and on these canals the capital city Tenochtitlan was built in 1325 CE. Its palaces and pyramids appeared as if they were seeing out of the lake. The most impressive temples of the Aztecs were dedicated to the gods of war and the Sun. This was because the Aztecs were frequently engaged in war.
(iii) Rural Base of Empire: Rural society was the base of the Aztec society. Crops like corn, squash, beans, maniac root, pumpkins, potatoes, etc., were cultivated by the people. The Clan was the owner of the land and it was not owned by any individual. The clans also organized public construction works. Peasants, like European serfs, cultivated land owned by the nobility. In exchange, they obtained a part of the harvest.
(iv) Educational Policy: The Aztecs were very particular about education. They made sure that all children must attend their school. Calmecan was attended by the children of the nobility. There they were trained to become military and religious leaders.
All other children studied in the Telpochcalli in the neighborhood. There they learned religion, history, myths and ceremonial songs. Boys were not only given military training but were given training in agriculture and trade as well. Girls were trained in domestic skills.
(v) End of the Empire: The Aztec empire started showing sight of instability in the early sixteenth century. In 1561 CE, the powerful Aztec empire came to an end.
To what extent, confrontation of cultures is a suitable title to this theme? Why is observed Cultural diversity and how some people turn it into discrimination? Elaborately discuss in the context of the cultures colliding and confronting each other in this theme.
Answer:
The term culture is understood as certain customs, beliefs, and ways of living adapted to the people in any region, nation, or country. Culture is formed basically like the final product of location, climate, altitude, distance from the ocean, etc. Geological condition and availability of resources, natural and artificial (Currency, promissory notes, etc.), communication and transportation system, type of soil (Fertile, fallow, desert, etc.), occupational structure (primary, secondary, tertiary), commerce and trade, industries, technology, etc.; economy-related components as also the political set-up and diplomatic relations of each country. Apart from them, Psychological factors like passions, urge, motive, etc. also are the components of the culture. Culture embraces education also.
On the basis of the above components, we see several cultures colliding with each other in this theme. These are European culture, Incas, Aztecs, Mayan on Broadway while Spanish, Portuguese, British, French, Tupinamba, Tabasco, etc. in minute form. Hence, the title of this theme appears all right.
We come across certain facts in the course of going over the tendencies of every culture described in this theme. These are-
1. The cultures of similar geographical locations cause assimilation, harmony, coordination, and confrontation. Here we see oppressive cultures of Spain, Portugal, British, Dutch, etc. as also the cultures which were born with atrocities or exploitation i.e. Aztecs, Incas, etc. countries settled on the sea-coasts.
2. Cultures of different and distinct instincts often collide. Eg. Europeans were passionate about gold and silver as also the subjugation of another country in colonies while South American cultures were confident, loathsome, satisfied with their means and mother-land. They were befooled by European cultures in exchange for glass beads for gold. Those people had no lust for gold and silver. Similarly, the Portuguese exchanged iron knives, combs, and saws for loads of hens, monkeys, parrots, honey, wax, and cotton.
3. Education is also used as an instrument for the exploitation of those who are uneducated-We see in this theme, cultures in South America and Central America are not so educated as European Cultures. This was because people in South America were not the least interested in the adoption of new technologies, scientific thoughts and were excessively modest. A native of Brazil tells a French priest that Portuguese and French are madmen who work so hard to accumulate riches.
He further says that they rest without further care in their community. They were dreaming in their own made world and caring for nothing beyond that. It was their ignorance. The Europeans betrayed and mercilessly massacred the people in South America with a passion to gather more and more stock of silver and gold, set up new sugar mills, grow sugar cane crops and get timber from Brazil, and export these items to their countries.
Why does the diversity of culture turn into discrimination?
Each country has its diverse nature of culture than the other due to factors summed up as geographical, historical, economic, and psychological factors as we have discussed at the beginning of this replication. Diversity proves a boon to unity if people could abide by social norms, common etiquette of mankind, global view (universal fraternity), benediction, and general welfare of mankind all over the world. Peaceful co-existence and respect for every culture are also twin merits that foster unity and integration. However, we observe in this theme, the following factors responsible for the confrontation of cultures
1. Excessive avarice and passion for money-Europeans had greed for money because, in their own countries, stock of gold and silver in mines exhausted, agricultural production receded due to sudden change in climate, the bubonic plague had taken a toll of several lakh people, etc. Thus, their eyes were fixed on the collection of wealth irrespective of means fair or unfair.
2. Genesis of Passion for Wealth-Passion actually is a very strong feeling of love, hatred, anger, or enthusiasm. Motor nerves become the most sensitive and the mind, without giving time to the head, starts issuing instructions to sensory and executive organs, and the act is done immediately. Passions also get their birth at home in the course of the conversation between parents.
Parents do sacrifice a lot for the welfare of their children but not by turning their mentality to exhilaration. Hence, they expose financial crunch, shaded and pseudo-half-cooked topics, strategy, device, intrigues, conspiracy, ego, etc. at home. It vibrates the atmosphere of a home with the root cause and children are made prey to them. Their minds stick to the concerned passion Eg. for money. The crystal or atom it forms will-“We need more money ”
3. Inputs to mind from the organization/institution/ government-Man are inborn gregarious. He cannot live alone and is not perfect in himself. Govt. etc. are nothing else but a macro form of a family however, unluckily; we all seeing events of patricide, fratricide, foeticide along with their melodrama through electronic media in India where Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam (presumption of universal man) is the serene echo of immortality circumambulates at all moments through the seas i.e. Indian Ocean, Arabian Sea, Andaman Sea and Bay of Bengal sea; weathering and drifting so brutally of the nuclear family in India is really a cause of national concern.
It indicates neglected respect to the root of immortality (Sanatan) and somewhere kneeling at the threshold of toxicosis. Consumption, distribution, and trade of narcotics and intoxicating drugs, stares exclusively at Government (the greatest family) to prohibit, restrict, forbid immediately, incoming of toxins/toxic items from outside as also manufactured, processed, harnessed, stored in indigenous markets.
Conclusion-On the basis of the above discussion and contextual illustrations, we can state here that the trio-power of human beings i.e. Psychical, mental, and emotional or psychological; facts and circumstances establish; a lion-goat relation between two cultures, there definitely takes place, confrontation or collision.
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