The Central Islamic Lands class 11 HISTORY MCQ & SAQ

The Central Islamic Lands class 11 HISTORY NCERT SOLUTION:

What were the features of the lives of the Bedouins in the early seventh century?

Answer:

• The Arabs were divided into tribes and were nomadic (Bedouins).

• The Arabian tribes were led by a chief who was selected based on his family connections, personal courage, wisdom and generosity (murawwa).

• Each tribe worshiped its own god or goddess as an idol (sanam) in a shrine (masjid).

• The Bedouins moved from dry to green areas (oases) of the desert in search of food (mainly dates) and fodder and water for their camels.

• Some settled in cities and practiced trade or agriculture.

 

What is meant by the term 'Abbasid revolution'?

 

Answer:

• Muawiya founded the Umayyad dynasty in 661 CE. The Umayyads tried to centralise the Muslim polity and suppressed rebellions in the name of Islam.

• However, in 750 CE, a well-organized movement, called dawa, brought down the Umayyads and replaced them with another family of Meccan origin, the Abbasids.

• The Abbasids were the descendants of Abbas, the Prophet's Uncle. They portrayed the Umayyad regime as evil and promised a restoration of the original Islam of the Prophet.

• The Abbasids revolution broke out in Khurasan in eastern Iran and changed the political structure and culture of Islam.

 

Give examples of the cosmopolitan character of the states set up by Arabs, Iranians and Turks.

Answer:

Followings are some of the cosmopolitan characters of the states set up by Arabs, Iranians and Turks:

(i) The Arabs declared Jews and Christians protected subjects of the state (dhimmis) and given a large measure of autonomy in the conduct of their communal affairs. Thus, the Arabs allowed the multi-cultural practices.

(ii) In the Turkish state, the Ghaznavid sultanates had recruited Indians for their army; one of the generals of Mahmud was an Indian named Tilak.

(iii) In the Iranian state, the Abbasids reorganized the army and bureaucracy on a non-tribal basis to ensure greater participation by Iraq and Khurasan.

 

What were the effects of the Crusades on Europe and Asia?

Answer:

• The Crusades left a lasting impact on two aspects of Christian- Muslim relations.

• Due to the bitter memories of the conflicts related to the Crusades, the Muslim state started showing the harsher attitude towards its Christian subjects.

• In the areas of mixed populations (Muslims, Jews and Christians), religious conflicts intensified.

• The greater influence of Italian mercantile communities (from Pisa, Genoa and Venice) in the trade between the East and the West continued even after the restoration of MusIim power.

 

ANSWER IN A SHORT ESSAY

 

How were Islamic architectural forms different from those of the Roman Empire?

Answer:

Islamic architectural forms:

• Religious buildings were the greatest external symbols of the Islamic architecture.

• Mosques, shrines and tombs from Spain to Central Asia showed the same basic design - arches, domes, minarets and open courtyards - and expressed the spiritual and practical needs of Muslims.

• The mosque had a distinct architectural form - roof supported by pillars- with an open courtyard (sahn).

• In the mosque, there were separate halls where sermons were delivered during noon prayers on Friday.

• The same pattern of construction can also be seen in caravanserais, hospitals and palaces.

• The Umayyads built 'desert palaces' in oases, such as Khirbat al-Mafjar in Palestine and Qusayr Amra in Jordan.

• The 'desert palaces' served as luxurious residences and retreats for hunting and pleasure.

Roman architectural forms:

• Roman architecture reflected the practical need for military and entertainment.

• For example, an amphitheatre was constructed for military drill and for staging entertainments for the soldiers.

• The Colosseum was built for the gladiators who fought wild beasts. It could accommodate 60,000 people.

 

Describe a journey from Samarqand to Damascus,referring to the cities on the route.

 

Answer:

• If a traveler sets out on his journey from Samarqand to Damascus (in Syria), he has to pass through cities such as Merv and Nishappur in Iraq, and then, Isfahan, Basra and Baghdad in Iran. Damascus is located at a distance of 838 kilometers from Baghdad.

• Samarqand was a prospering city due to its location on the Silk Road between China and the Mediterranean.

• However, Damascus, Isfahan and Samarqand were older towns and they later developed significantly as Islamic civiLisation flourished.

• These cities expanded and their population increased as the foodgrains and raw materials (cotton and sugar) were available in abundance for urban manufacturing.

• A vast urban network developed, linking one town with a nether and forming a circuit.

• The cities had two building complexes, standing as symbols of cultural and economic power: the congregational mosque (masjid al-jami) and the central marketplace (suq).

• The markets had shops in a row, merchants' lodgings (fanduq) and the office of the money-changer.

• The cities were also homes to administrators (ayan or eyes of the state), and scholars and merchants (tujjar).

• However, ordinary citizens and soldiers lived in their quarters outside the city circle; they had their own mosque, church or synagogue (Jewish temple), subsidiary market and public bath (hammam).

• The houses of the urban poor were also located at the outskirts of the cities, with their own markets and caravan stations.

• There were inns for people to rest when the city gates were shut, and separate cemeteries were maintained for the poor people.

The Central Islamic Lands class 11 HISTORY MCQ :

1. The Umayyad Emperor who introduced Arabic as the language of administration was

(a) Abd al-Malik

(b) Ali

(c) Abbas

(d) Muawiya

► (a) Abd al-Malik

 

2. The followers and non-followers of Ali were called

(a) Arabs and Iranians.

(b) Shias and Sunnis.

(c) Umayyads and Abbasids.

(d) Byzantines and Sassanids

► (b) Shias and Sunnis.

 

3. The Caliph during whose reign the Hijri was established was:

(a) Abu Bakr

(b) Muhammad

(c) Uthman

(d) Umar

► (d) Umar

 

4. What was the name given to nomadic Arab tribes?

(a) Sanam

(b) Qabila

(c) Bedouins

(d) Umma

► (c) Bedouins

 

5. Zakat was an/a

(a) agriculture tax

(b) alms tax

(c) religious tax

(d) trade tax

► (b) alms tax

6. The semi-historical works sira in the Islamic history are

(a) biographies

(b) chronicles

(c) eyewitness reports

(d) inscriptions

► (a) biographies

 

7. Caliph Muawiya shifted his capital to

(a) Rome

(b) Medina

(c) Mecca

(d) Damascus

► (d) Damascus

 

8. The woman-saint sufi who, in her poems, preached intense love for God by uniting with God was

(a) Rabia.

(b) Aisha

(c) Fatima

(d) Khadija

► (a) Rabia.

 

9. After the Arabs and Iranians, the group that was rising to power on the Islamic scene was the

(a) Buyids.

(b) Iranians.

(c) Samanid.

(d) Turks.

► (d) Turks.

 

10. The sub-sect of Shiism, from which the Fatimids descended, is known as the

(a) Ismaili

(b) Shia

(c) Sunni

(d) Umma

► (a) Ismaili

 

11. Prophet Muhammad declared himself to be the messenger of God

(a) around 610 CE.

(b) around 611 CE.

(c) around 612 CE.

(d) around 613 CE.

► (c) around 612 CE.

 

12. Prophet Muhammad’s migration from Mecca to Medina with his followers in 622 CE is called hijra:

(a) Hijra

(b) Kaba

(c) Mecca

(d) Calipha

► (a) Hijra

 

13. By whom did Ali assassinate?

(a) Muawiya

(b) Kharji

(c) Bedouins

(d) None of the above

► (b) Kharji

 

14. Who introduced an islamic coinage.

(a) Abu Bakr

(b) Abd-al-Malik

(c) Uthman

(d) Umar

► (b) Abd-al-Malik

The Central Islamic Lands class 11 HISTORY SAQ:

Discuss the structure of the mosque built during Islamic regimes?

Answer:

The main features of a mosque were-

1. Sahn (an open courtyard),

2. Vaulted Hall,

3. mihrab (a niche),

4. Minbar or mimbar (a pulpit),

5. Minaret (a tower).

Central courtyard (Iwan) can be seen in caravans, saris, hospitals, and palaces e.g. Khirabat- al-Mafjar (Palestine) and Qusayr Amra (Jordan).

 

What were the two art forms that emerged in the Islamic religion?

Answer:

These art forms were-

1. Calligraphy (Art of beautiful writing) and,

2. Arabesque (geometric and vegetal designs).

Calligraphic art has been best preserved in manuscripts of the Quran dating from the eighth and ninth centuries. Plant and floral designs, based on the idea of the garden, were used in buildings and book illustrations.

 

What is excellent or unique in the history of the Central Islamic lands?

Answer:

Unique in the history of the central Islamic lands was a merger of three important aspects of human civilization i.e. religion, community, and politics into one. We can see them as three circles that merge and appear as one in the seventh century. It could separate in the next five centuries. Later on, the influence of Islam over state and government became nominal and politics involved many things that have no sanction in religion and thus, the circles of religion and community were overlapped by politics. Politics became a separate circle. The only way the circles of religion and community could have separated was through the progressive secularisation of Muslim society. Philosophers and Sufis advocated this, suggesting that civil society should be made autonomous and rituals be replaced by private spirituality.

 

Describe a morning scene in Basra.

Answer:

Basra is a city that falls in IraQuestion Here were settled Arab soldiers (Jind) who formed the backbone of the administration. It was a garrison city. There were a number of companies (branches of troops) parading in the morning. Military headquarters we see here. We could see them doing prayer in a mosque because such was made mandatory under Islamic administration.

 

What knowledge could one obtain from Geniza records? Explain.

Answer:

Geniza records consisted of over two lakh fifty thousand manuscripts and fragments dating back from the Fatimid, Ayyubid, and early Mamluk periods. Most of the documents were written in Judaeo-Arabic, a version of Arabic written in Hebrew characters that were commonly used by Jewish communities throughout the medieval Mediterranean. These provide rich insight into personal and economic experiences and into Mediterranean and Islamic culture. These suggest that the business skills and commercial techniques of merchants of the medieval Islamic world were more advanced than those of their European counterparts. On the basis of a study on these documents, Goitein composed a multi-volume history of the Mediterranean, and Amitav Ghosh composed “In an Antique Land.”

 

Discuss the structure of city settlement in the Central Islamic Lands.

Answer:

Cities that flourished in the central Islamic lands can be described as-

1. Capital cities,

2. Garrison cities.

Capital cities were founded by Caliphs like Abbasid in Baghdad, Medina. Garrison cities were Kufa and Basra in Iraq, Fustat, and Cairo in Egypt. Apart from these cities, there were developed towns such as Damascus, Isfahan, and Samarqand.

Formation of a city-In the middle of the city, there were two building complexes-

1. the congregation mosque (masjid al-Jami) and

2. the central marketplace (suq).

There were shops, merchants’ lodgings (fandub), and offices of the money changer. Administrators, scholars, and merchants lived close to the center of the city. In its outer circle, there were residences for ordinary citizens and soldiers. Churches, Synagogues, and mosques were built everywhere at a small distance. There were subsidiary markets and public baths in these cities. Homes of Urban poor people, vegetable markets, caravan stations, and unclean shops (tanning and butchering) were at the outskirts of the cities. There were inns and cemeteries beyond the city walls.

 

Describe the condition of agriculture in the Central Islamic Lands.

Answer:

Condition of Agriculture

1. It was the principal occupation of the settled populations.

2. Ownership inland was that of small and big farmers. The large estates were owned by the state:

3. Kharaj was the land revenue paid by the peasants. It varied from half to a fifth of the products according to the conditions of cultivation (i.e. irrigated, fallow, fertile, sandy, etc.). The concession was given to Muslim peasants as they were charged in proportion to one-tenth (Ushr) of the produce.

4. Irrigation system supported by the state in Nile Valley. Construction of dams, canals, and digging of wells given priority. Tax concession was given to the people who brought forest land under cultivation. Crops like cotton, oranges, bananas, watermelons, Spinach, and brinjals were grown and exported to Europe.

 

What was the treatment of Franks (Firangis or Christians) with Muslims in Central Islamic Lands? Explain.

Answer:

We can conclude about the treatment of Christians with Muslims as a mixed type. It differs from one territory to another. It has been seen that the earliest of the crusaders settled down in Syria and Palestine were more tolerant to Muslims than those who came later. The early comers were properly associated with Muslims hence, there was fraternity among them. An instance of their treatment with the Muslim community has been given in this chapter extracted from Kitab al- Inbar. The author says that he had a friend Chief Theodore Sophia’s in Antioch.

He once was invited by that friend. He met a retired old knight who owned property in Antioch. Here he offered not Frankish but Muslim food to him. He heard him saying while on the dining table that he had appointed an Egyptian woman as a cook and never ate pork meat. However, when they were strolling in the marketplace, a crowd of Franks gathered against him to attack. That was because they mistook him for another Arab who once had killed their brother. Anyhow, his friend could cool them down by saying that the author was a businessman.

Hence, a mixed type of treatment with Muslims in territories under Franks can be concluded.

 

Enumerate the business and trade in the Central Islamic Lands.

Answer:

The Central Islamic lands witnessed ample growth in business and trade particularly, the topography supported their trading maneuver. Muslim empire was spread between the Mediterranean and the Indian ocean. The Arab and Iranian traders, therefore, regularly monopolized the maritime trade between China, India, and Europe.

Two major routes of that trade were-

1. The Red Sea and

2. The Persian Gulf.

Spices, textile, porcelain, and gunpowder were shipped from India and China to Aden and Aydhab i.e. ports at the Mediterranean. The ports of the second route i.e. the Persian Gulf were-Siraf and Basra.

Camel caravans were used to transport the mercantile from the ports of Aden and Aydhab of the first route and Siraf Aijd Basra of the second route to the warehouses (Makhan) of Baghdad i.e. the capital of Abbasids Caliphate. Warehouses were also established in Damascus and Aleppo.

It was then disbursed for local consumption or onward transmission. Jewish merchants had handled exports to Europe from the port of Alexandria. Subsequently, Cairo emerged as a center of commerce which had increased the importance of the Red Sea route. In order to buy paper and other goods of Central Asia origin, Iranian merchants set-out from Baghdad along the Silk Route to China via the oasis cities of Bukhara and Samarkand. Bukhara and Samarkand were the cities linking commercial networks extended north to Russia and Scandinavia. For exchange of European goods (fur and slaves).

 

Describe the consequences of crusades conducted by Christians and Muslims during the period between 1095 and 1291.

Answer:

These crusades left a lasting impact on two aspects of Christian-Muslim relations. One was the harsher attitude of the Muslim state towards its Christian subjects which resulted from the bitter memories of the conflict as well as the need for security in areas of mixed populations. The other impact was the greater influence of Italian mercantile communities from Pisa, Genoa, and Venice in the trade between the East and West even after the restoration of Muslim power.

 

Discuss the causes of the fall of the Caliphate?

Answer:

Following reasons can be ascribed for the break-up of the Caliphate-

1. Baghdad was not a central place hence, it had become difficult to maintain control over the distant provinces.

2. The civil war of 810 between supporters of Amin and Mamun (sons of the Caliph Harun al-Rashid) created a new power block of Turkish slave officers (Mamluk).

3. The confrontation started between Shiites and Sunnis.

4. Minor dynasties such as Tahirids, Samanids, Tulunids in Khurasan, Turan, Egypt, and Syria rose and the Caliphate limited to Central Iraq and Western Iran. Baghdad also was seized by a Shiite clan of Daylam (Iran). Those were Buyids.

Thus, the Caliphate system was shattered and the sultanate system established. Fatimids also had conquered Egypt in 969.

 

Discuss the achievements of the Caliphate?

Answer:

It was a system of polity in which the leader of the community(amir al-mining) became the deputy (Khalifa) of the

Prophet Muhammed. The objectives of the Caliphate were-

• to return control over the tribes constituting the Umma and,

• to raise resources for the state.

This system was adopted after the death of the Prophet Muhammed. The three powerful Caliphs were-Abu Bakr, Umar, and Uthman. The first Caliph Abu Bakr suppressed the revolts by a series of campaigns. The second Caliph Umar shaped the Umna’s policy of expansion of power. He conducted raids and conquered the lands belonging to Byzantine Empire in the West and the Sasanian empire in the east. Religious conflicts between Christians and Zoroastrians and revolts by the aristocracy weakened these two empires. The Arabs brought Syria, Iraq, Iran, and Egypt under the control of Medina.

The Arab empire under Uthman witnessed control over the vast territory between the Nile and the Oxus. Soon conflicts over the distribution of resources and offices began touching climax. Blind favor to Quraysh provoked opposition in Iraq and Egypt simultaneous to the opposition in Medina which resulted from the assassination of Uthman. Thus, Ali became the fourth Caliph. Here, two sects developed i.e.Shias and Sunnis. Ali defeated Muhammed’s wife, Aisha in the battle of the Camel in 657 but could not suppress Muawiya, a kinsman of Uthaman. In the battle at Siffin (northern Mesopotamia), Ali had to resort to a truce and it split his followers. The opposite group Kharji assassinated Ali at Kufa. Thus, there was the established Umayyad dynasty which lasted till 750 C.E.

 

Who were Umayyads and how did they manage the centralization of polity?

Answer:

Umayyads was a prosperous clan of the Quraysh tribe and Muawiya was its first Caliph. He shifted capital to Damascus and adopted the court ceremonies and administrative institutions of the Byzantine empire. He introduced hereditary succession. These were the innovations of the Umayyads adopted by the Caliphs. They retain power for 90 years and the Abbasids for two centuries.

It was an imperial power and mainly based on statecraft and loyalty of Syrian troops. There were Christian advisers in the administration, Zoroastrian scribes, and bureaucrats. Islam provided legitimacy to the rule of the Umayyads and Abbasids. During the reign of Abd al-Malik and his successors, Arabic was accepted as the language of administration, and the introduction of an Islamic coinage was an important achievement. Dinar was the gold coin while dirham was the silver coin. Aba al-Malik also built the Dome of the Rock.

 

Discuss Byzantine and Iranian coins and that of Arab-Islamic coins?

Byzantine coins were called denarius while the Iranian coins were drachma. Symbols of crosses, Sine alters along with an inscription of Greek and Pchlari (the language of Iran).

Aba-al-Malik removed these symbols and language inscribed thereon but the shape and size were kept unchanged. Initially, Abd- al-Malik inscribed his portrait with name and image. Subsequently, it was made epigraphic. A Kalima was inscribed in Arabic which means–There is no god but Allah and He has no partner (Sharik). This change was made because there developed dissatisfaction subsequently with representation of living beings in art and craft.

 

Discuss the causes and consequences of the Abbasid revolution.

Answer:

It was named as Dawa movement and it brought down the Umayyads and replaced them with another family of Meccan regions, the Abbasids in 750 CE. Abbasids were the descendants of Abbas, the Prophet’s uncle. This revolution broke out in Khurasan (eastern Iran) where a mixed Arab-Iranian population was mobilized. Arab soldiers were from Iraq and resented the dominance of the Syrians. The Umayyad regime had not reduced the taxes and their demand for privileges was left unaccepted. Iranian Muslims (Mawalis) were discriminated against by Arabs. Thus, Umayyad’s Caliph Marwan was defeated in a battle at the river Zab and thereafter, Abbasid Caliphate formed.

 

Outline the fiscal system adopted in the Central Islamic lands.

Answer:

Fiscal System-Owing to the rapid growth of urban centers, cities, towns and the trade, income, and expenditure of the state had also spurt-up. This increased the importance of money in the central Islamic Lands. In order to pay for goods and services, coins of gold, silver, and copper were minted and circulated in bags sealed by money-changers.

Gold was brought from Sudan in Africa, silver from Europe (Zarafshan valley), and precious metals and coins were also brought from Europe. Demand for money inspired dead people to release their accumulated reserves and idle wealth into circulation. Credit facilities were also developed. Letter of Credit (Sakk) and bill of exchange (Suftajer) was used for the transfer of money from one place to another. Commercial papers like promissory notes, cheques, etc. freed merchants from the need to carry cash everywhere. It made their journey safer. Salaries to soldiers or rewards to poets and minstrels were paid in Sakk (cheques). Investment increased and partnership businesses opened. Thus, the fiscal system under Islamic land was approximately in the modern line.

 

Explain the Quran and the difficulties in case of it as source material for the history of early Islam.

 

The Quran is a book in Arabic consisting of 114 chapters (Suras). Chapters are in descending order of length i.e. the shortest chapter is the least. The first Sura is a short prayer (al-Fatihah. This book is considered as a collection of messages which God gave to Prophet Muhammad between 610 and 632, first in Mecca and then in Medina. It was completed in 650 CE. The verses engraved on the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem and the coins in the seventh century are the earliest.

Problems for the use of the Quran as source material for the history of early Islam have arisen. The one is to understand it literally as the theologians believe these as the speech of God (Kalam Allah). The rationalists have given a wider interpretation of the Quran. Such a dual-position raises controversy to arrive at the conclusion. The second problem is that of events not narrated by m Quran. It only refers to the events therefore, Medieval scholars have to make sense of many verses with the help of hadith. We see, there are many hadith written to help in the reading of the Quran.

 

Whether the thoughts of Abdul-Latif, a twelfth-century legal and medical scholar of Baghdad about an ideal student as extracted in this chapter are relevant to a student today?

 

Answer:We think the suggestions are all relevant to a student today provided that one could construe the meaning and implication of this extract in a positive manner. We can sum up the main points suggested as under-

1. Self-conscience without the proper guidance of teachers ipso- facto is unscientific as it may be mere fiction.

2. Don’t think of the limitation of the teacher but take all the good that he delivers as your review, introspection, and churning on the same would lead you to the facts.

3. Don’t cram, but understand the topics in a better way as the physical presence of the book is no longer required.

4. Histories, biographies, and Geography are the subjects that introduce a man to his surroundings. Analyze and compare the cause and effects of all events and activities.

5. Frame opinion after study on biographies of great men cautiously by taking your nature as innocent as a child.

6. Once the conclusion has arrived, stay undeniable there even if the world criticizes you.

On the basis of the above points, the study becomes perfect and scientific for which no options remain. Here literally suggested submission before the Prophet and distrust your nature but its implication leads to the scientific process of the study. We can replace the prophet with. the generalization which is made after experiments done impartially. Similarly, distrust of your nature implies cleanliness of head and heart while in a study which is necessary to grasp the sense in its basic form and generalization thereafter would automatically provide with the apparent light in the matter so churned.

Conclusion-Hence, we can state that cramming and study are useless even in modem sense and curriculum and the same has been started and suggested in the aforesaid extract.

 

Discuss the influence of Greek philosophy, mathematics and medicine added to the curriculum of schools under the central Islamic Lands?

Answer:

Study on these subjects promoted critical inquiry and had a profound influence on Islamic intellectual life. Scholars with a logical bent of mind Eg. Mutazila started using Greek logic and methods of reasoning (Kalam) to defend Islamic beliefs. Philosophers (Malaysia) posed wider questions and provided fresh answers. Books on medicines were confused like al-Qanun fil Tibb (Canon of Medicine) by Ibn Sina. The poetry of that period is called Nazm and prose is called nature. Ode (qasida) is the poetic composition by poets of the Abbasid period.

Abu Nawas composed classical poetry on themes like wine and male love. Sufi’s glorified the intoxication caused by the wine of mystical love. An Arabic vocabulary was developed. The Father of the new Persian poetry was Radaki, a court poet under Samanids. Rubai and Ghazals were composed.

The rubai is a four line-stanza in which the first two lines set the stage, the third is finely poised and the fourth delivers the point. Umar Khayyam of Bukhara was a famous poet who composed rubai. Diwans and Mathnavi (anthologies and epic poetry) were composed during the period of Mahmud of Ghazni. Firdausi composed Shahnama (Book of King) and Kitab-Al-Fihrist describes a large number of works written in prose for the moral education and amusement of readers.

Other books written during this period were Kalilawa Dimna, Stories of Alexander and Sindbad, The Thousand and One Nights, Kitab al-Bukhala, Akhlaq, Mirrors for Princes Tarikh (Ansab al-Ashraf) and Tarikh al-Rusul Wal Muluk, Rihla and Ahsan al-Taqasim, Muruj al Dhahab and Tahqiq mail-Hind.

 

Describe the Sufis and their new method of devotion.

Answer:

Sufis were religious minded people in medieval Islam. They preached knowledge of God through asceticism (Rahbaniyat) and mysticism. These people sought to renounce the world (Zuhd) and rely on God alone (Tawakkul). Mysticism attained new heights by the idea of pantheism and love. Pantheism is the idea of the oneness of God and His creation which implies that the human soul must be united with its maker. Ishq or intense love can only help in the merger of the soul with god. Sufis used musical concerts (Sama) to introduce ecstasy and stimulate emotions of love and passion. Rabia and Bayazid Bistani were some Sufis. Sufism was beyond the boundaries of caste, race, religion, and creed. According to theory, religion is more personal and less institutional.

Q.1. What was Kaba?

Ans. Kaba was the cube-like structure that was situated in Mecca. Idols were placed in it. Tribes outside Mecca also considered Mecca as a holy place. That is why they were making annual pilgrimages to the shrine, i.e., Hajj.

 

 

 

Q.2. Why was the city of Mecca important?

Ans. (i) The city of Mecca was known for its holy ‘Kaba’.

(ii) It was located on the crossroads of a trade route between Syria and Yemen. That is why it was considered important.

 

Q.3. When did Prophet Muhammad declare himself to be the messenger of God? Which two things did he tell people?

Ans. Prophet Muhammad declared himself to be the messenger of God around 612 CE. He told people the following two things:

(i) Allah alone must be worshiped.

(ii) They must find a community of believers who must be bound by a common set of religious beliefs.

 

Q.4. What were the people who accepted Prophet Muhammad’s doctrine called? Which two things were they promised?

Ans. The people who accepted Prophet Muhammad’s religious doctrine were called the Muslims. They were promised the following two things:

(i) They were promised salvation on Judgment Day.

(ii) They would be given a share of the resources of the community while on earth.

 

Q.5. Why did the Muslims face opposition from affluent people in Mecca?

Ans. The Muslims faced opposition from affluent people in Mecca because these people took offense to the rejection of their deities and found the new religion a threat to the status and prosperity of Mecca.

 

Q. 6. What is meant by hijra? What is its importance in the history of Islam?

Ans. Prophet Muhammad’s migration from Mecca to Medina with his followers in 622 CE is called hijra. The year of his arrival in Medina marked the beginning of the Muslim calendar. That is why hijra is important in the history of Islam.

 

Q.7. How was the institution of the Caliphate created?

Ans. There was no one, after the death of Prophet Muhammad in 632 CE, who could legitimately claim to be the next Prophet of Islam. There was also no established rule of succession. That is why Islamic political authority was transferred to the Umma. In this way, the institution of the Caliphate was created.

 

Q.8. What were the two main objectives of the institution of the Caliphate?

Ans. Following were the two main objectives of the institution of the Caliphate:

(i) To retain control over the tribes constituting the Umma.

(ii) To raise resources for the state.

 

Q.9. Which factors contributed to the success of the Arabs against the Byzantine and the Sasanian empires?

Ans. (i) Military strategy of the Arabs

(ii) Religious fervor of the Arabs

(iii) Weakness of the opposition.

 

Q.10. Why was the third Caliph, Uthman assassinated?

Ans. The third Caliph, Uthman, was a Quraysh. He filled his administration with his own men to keep greater control. So other tribes were against him, and they assassinated him.

 

Q.11. Which wars did the fourth Caliph Ali fight? What was the result of these wars?

Ans. The fourth Caliph Ali fought the following two wars:

(i) Ali fought the first war against Muhammad’s wife, Aisha. This war was known as the Battle of the Camels. Aisha was defeated in this war.

(ii) He fought the second war at Siffin in northern Mesopotamia. It ended in a treaty.

Battle of Camel

 

Q.12. Why was Islam divided into two sects? Which were these sects?

Ans. During Caliph Ali’s regime, two wars were fought against those who represented the Meccan aristocracy. It deepened the rifts among the Muslims, and Islam was divided into two sects. These sects were Shias and Sunnis.

 

Q.13. By whom and where was Ali assassinated?

Ans. Ali was assassinated by a Kharji in a mosque at Kufa.

 

Q.14. When and by whom was the Umayyad dynasty founded? How long did this dynasty last?

Ans. The Umayyad dynasty was founded in 661 CE by Muawiya. This dynasty lasted till 750 CE.

 

Q.15. Who were the Abbasids? How did they legitimate their bid for power?

Ans. The Abbasids were descendants of Abbas, Prophet Muhammad’s uncle. They promised to various Arab groups that a messiah from the family of the Prophet would liberate them from the oppressive Umayyad regime. By this promise, they legitimated their bid for power.

 

Q.16. Which two traditions of the Umayyad dynasty were retained by the Abbasids?

Ans. Following two traditions of the Umayyad dynasty were retained by the Abbasids:

(i) They retained the centralized nature of government and the state.

(ii) They maintained the magnificent imperial architecture and elaborate court ceremonials of the Umayyads.

 

Q.17. Tell two reasons for the weakness of the Abbasid state in the ninth century.

Ans. (i) There was a decline in control of Baghdad over the distant provinces.

(ii) There was a conflict between pro-Arab and pro-Iranian groups in the bureaucracy and army.

 

Q.18. Write two functions of the Buyid rulers of Baghdad.

Ans. (i) The Buyid rulers assumed many titles. One of these titles was ‘Shahanshah.’

(ii) These rulers patronized Shiite administrators, poets, and scholars.

 

Q.19. Who were the Fatimids? Why did they consider themselves as the sole rightful rulers of Islam?

Ans. The Fatimids belonged to the Ismaili sub-sects of Shiism. They considered themselves as the sole rightful rulers of Islam because they claimed that they were the descendants of Fatima, the Prophet’s daughter.

 

Q.20. Write two functions performed by Abdal-Malik of the Umayyad dynasty for the development of Arab-Islamic identity.

Ans. (i) Abd-al-Malik introduced an Islamic coinage. The coins carried Arabic inscriptions. (ii) He built the Dome of the Rock.

 

Short Question With Answer (2 Mark Each)

Q.1. Which was the main shrine of Mecca? What was its importance?

Ans. The main shrine of Mecca was Kaba. It was a cube-like structure in which idols were placed. Even tribes outside Mecca considered Kaba holy. They also installed their own idols at Kaba and made annual pilgrimages to it. Kaba was a sanctuary where violence was prohibited, and all the visitors were given protection.

Nomadic and settled tribes got opportunities with pilgrimage and commerce to communicate with each other and share their customs and beliefs. It established unity amongst the Arab tribes.

 

Q.2. How did the institution of the Caliphate come into existence? What were its objectives?

Ans. Prophet Muhammad passed away in 632 CE. After him, there was no one who could legitimately claim to be the next Prophet. There was no established principle of succession. That is why the political authority of the Prophet was given to the Umma. It created opportunities for innovations but brought great divisions among the Muslims. One of the biggest innovations was the creation of the institution of the Caliphate. In it, the leader of the community was given the responsibility of becoming the deputy (Khalifa) of the Prophet. The first four Caliphs (632– 61) had a close association with the Prophet and that is why they justified their powers. These Caliphs continued the works of the Prophet under the general guidelines given by him. Objectives: The institution of the Caliphate had the following two objectives :

(i) To keep or retain control over the tribes constituting the Umma.

(ii) To raise resources for the state.

 

Q.3. Describe the main features of the administrative structure of the Arab Empire under the early Caliphs.

Ans. The Caliphs introduced a new administrative structure in all the conquered states. These states were headed by governors (amirs) and tribal chieftains (ashraf). There were two main sources of revenue for central authority-taxes paid by the Muslims and share of the booty obtained from raids. Soldiers of the Caliph were settled in camp cities at the edge of the desert, like Kufa and Basra, so that they could remain within reach of Caliph’s Command as well as their natural habitat. The ruling class and soldiers received their shares of the booty and monthly payments (ata). The non-Muslim people paid taxes called Kharaj and Jiziya. For this, they were free to retain their rights of property and religious practices. Jews and Christians were declared as protected subjects of the state. They were given enough autonomy in the conduct of their communal affairs.

 

Q.4. Which circumstances were responsible for the assassination of the third Caliph, Uthman?

Ans. Arab tribes completed their work of political expansion and unification very easily. With territorial expansion, conflicts arose over the distribution of offices and resources of the state. These conflicts became a threat to the unity of the Umma. Actually, the ruling class of the early Islamic state mainly belonged to the Quraysh tribe of Mecca. The third Caliph, Uthman (644–56 CE) was also a Quraysh. He filled the administration with his men to increase his control over the administration. As a result, the conflict intensified among other tribes. Opposition in Iraq and Egypt was coupled with opposition in Medina. That is why Uthman, the third Caliph, was assassinated. After his death, Ali was appointed as the fourth Caliph.

 

Q.5. Write a note on the regime of the fourth Caliph, Ali.

Ans. The Caliph Ali (656–61 CE) fought two wars against the people representing the aristocracy of Mecca. As a result, the rifts among the Muslims deepened. Later on, Ali’s supporters and enemies formed two main sects of Islam, i.e., Shias and Sunnis. Ali established himself at Kufa. He defeated the army led by Aisha, Muhammad’s wife, in the Battle of Camels in 657 CE. But he was unable to suppress the groups led by Muawiya, a kinsman of Uthman and the governor of Syria. Then Ali fought another battle with him at Siffin (northern Mesopotamia). This battle ended in a truce. This battle divided his followers into two groups. Some of them remained loyal to him, and some of them left him. Those who left him came to be known as Kharjis. Soon after, Ali was assassinated by a Kharji in a mosque at Kufa.

 

Q.6. Under which circumstances was the Umayyad dynasty established? Throw light on the regime of the first Umayyad ruler, Muawiya.

Ans. The Caliphate based in Medina was destroyed with the conquest of large territories and was replaced with an increasingly authoritarian polity. In 661, Muawiya declared himself as the next Caliph and founded the Umayyad dynasty. Umayyads took certain political steps with which their leadership was consolidated within the Umma. First Umayyad Caliph Muawiya made Damascus his capital. He adopted the administrative institutions and court ceremonies of the Byzantine Empire. The tradition of hereditary succession was also introduced by him. He also convinced the leading Muslims to accept his son as his successor. These new changes were also adopted by the Caliphs, who followed him. As a result, Umayyads retained power for almost 90 years.

 

Q.7. Discuss main features of the Umayyad state after Muawiya.

Ans. The main features of the Umayyad state after Muawiya were as follows:

(i) The Umayyad state was now one of the powerful states. Now it was not directly based on Islam and ran on the basis of statecraft and on the loyalty of Syrian troops.

(ii) The Christian advisers, Zoroastrian scribes, and bureaucrats were also included in the administration. Even then, Islam remained a base of the legitimacy of Umayyad rule. The Umayyads always appealed for unity, and they used to suppress the rebellions in the name of Islam.

(iii) They also maintained their Arabian social identity. During the reign of Abd al-Malik (685–705 CE) and his successors, both the Arabian and Islamic identities were greatly emphasized. That is why Abd al-Malik made Arabic the language of the administration. He also introduced Islamic coinage. The gold dinar and silver dirham which were in circulation within the country were copies of Iranian and Byzantine coins. These coins had the symbols of crosses and fire altars. These symbols were removed, and the coins now carried the Arabic inscriptions. Abd al-Malik built the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem and gave a great contribution to the development of an Arab-Islamic identity.

Dome of the Rock

 

Q.8. What were the main features of Abbasid rule? Were Abbasid rulers able to abolish monarchy?

Ans. Following were the main features of Abbasid rule:

(i) Arab influence declined under the Abbasid rule. On the contrary, the importance of Iranian culture increased.

(ii) The Abbasids established their capital in Baghdad.

(iii) The Abbasids reorganized the army and bureaucracy on a non-tribal basis. It ensured more participation of Iraq and Khurasan in the army and bureaucracy.

(iv) The religious status and functions of the Caliphate were strengthened by the Abbasid rulers. They also patronized Islamic institutions and scholars. Abbasid Rulers and Monarchy. No, Abbasid rulers were not able to abolish the monarchy. The needs of the government and empire forced them to retain the centralized nature of the state. They not only maintained the magnificent imperial architecture but also maintained the court ceremonies of the Umayyads. In this way, the Abbasid rulers, who claimed to bring down the monarchy, were forced to establish the monarchy again.

 

Q.9. Who were the Saljuq Turks? How did they establish and expand the Turk authority?

Ans. The Saljuq Turks were non-Muslims from the far east. They entered Turan as soldiers in the armies of the Samanids and Qarakhanids. Then later on, under the leadership of two brothers, Tughril Beg and Chaghri Beg, they established themselves as a powerful group. They took advantage of the chaos after the death of Mahmud of Ghazni and conquered Khurasan in 1037 CE. They made Nishapur their first capital. Then they concentrated on Western Persia and Iraq. They restored Baghdad to Sunni rule in 1055 CE. The Caliph, al-Qaim became very happy and conferred the title of Sultan to Tughril Beg. The Saljuq brothers ruled together according to the tribal notion of rule by the family. After Tughril Beg, his nephew Alp Arsalan became his successor. Under the reign of Alp Arsalan, the Saljuq empire expanded to Anatolia, i.e., modern Turkey.

 

Q.10. Who were the Turks? How was the Turkish authority established and strengthened in Ghazni?

Ans. The Turks were nomadic tribes of the Central Asian steppes of Turkistan. They adopted Islam. They were very good warriors and riders. They began working as slaves and soldiers under the Abbasid, Samanid, and Buyid administrations. Just because of their loyalty and military abilities, they rose to high positions. In 961 CE, a Turk Alptegin established the Ghaznavid Sultanate. It was consolidated by Mahmud of Ghazni (998–1030). The Ghaznavids, like the Buyids, were also a military dynasty. They had a professional army of Turks and Indians. But Khurasan and Afghanistan were their centers of power. For them, the Abbasid Caliphs were a source of legitimacy. Mahmud was the son of a slave. That is why he wanted to receive the title of Sultan from the Caliph. On the other hand, the Caliph also wanted to support the Sunni Ghaznavids against the Shiite power. So the Abbasid Caliphs became a source of legitimacy to the Turkish authority in Ghazni.

 

Q.11. What are the sources used for the description of the Central Islamic lands?

Ans. These are Chronicles-

• Tawarikh,

• Sira,

• Hadith and

• Tafsir-are composed of a compilation of Akhbar, Khabar, and isnad.

Other Material-

• Legal texts,

• travelogs,

• stories and poems.

Documentary-

• Arabic papyri,

• official orders,

• private correspondences.

Epigraphy- Study of inscriptions.

Numismatic- Study of coins.

 

Q.11. Who was Muhammed?

Ans. He was an Arab by culture and a merchant by profession. His tribe was Quraysh. He was murals and, therefore, chosen as chief of his tribe. Subsequently, he became a prophet to Islam.

 

Q.12. Who are Muslims?

Ans. Followers of Islamic order or religion are Muslims because since Prophet Muhammed’s ruling, coincide religion made integral parts to constitution and raids for booty were not considered “theft”; however; abstain from theft was the feature of eligibility to become a member of Umma.

 

Q.13. What were the basic tenets of Islam?

Ans.

• One has to enroll with Umma (a community of believers).

• The communist will bear witness (Shahada) to the existence of the religion before God and other religious communities.

• The members of that community will be called Muslims.

• The member shall have the promise of salvation on the day of judgment (iqama).

• He will have to share the resources of the community while on earth.

 

Q.14. Which kind of political order had Muhammed created?

Ans.

• Umma converted into a wider community to include polytheists and Jews of Medina.

• Certain modifications were done in rituals/ethical principles.

• Alms tax (Zakat) imposed.

• Raids (Ghazw) on Meccan caravans allowed them to collect booty in order to run the expenses of an organization.

Q.15. Describe the area expansion under the Caliphate regime in Arab.

Ans. The regions carried under the Arab empire were Syria, Iraq, Iran (Sasanian empire), and Egypt, including the Byzantine empire. Three successful campaigns from 637-642 had brought the frontiers of the Arab empire so extended.

 

Q.16. Describe the Sufis and their new method of devotion

Ans. Sufis were religious-minded people in medieval Islam. They preached knowledge of God through asceticism (Rahbaniyat) and mysticism. These people sought to renounce the world (Zuhd) and rely on God alone (Tawakkul). Mysticism attained new heights by the idea of pantheism and love. Pantheism is the idea of the oneness of God and His creation which implies that the human soul must be united with its maker. Ishq or intense love can only help in the merger of the soul with god. Sufis used musical concerts (Sama) to introduce ecstasy and stimulate emotions of love and passion. Rabia and Bayazid Bistani were some Sufis. Sufism was beyond the boundaries of caste, race, religion, and creed. According to theory, religion is more personal and less institutional.

 

Q.17. Discuss the influence of Greek philosophy, mathematics and medicine added to the curriculum of schools under the central Islamic Lands?

Ans. Study on these subjects promoted critical inquiry and had a profound influence on Islamic intellectual life. Scholars with a logical bent of mind Eg. Mu'tazila, started using Greek logic and methods of reasoning (Kalam) to defend Islamic beliefs. Philosophers (Malaysia) posed wider questions and provided fresh answers. Books on medicines were confused, like al-Qanun fil Tibb (Canon of Medicine) by Ibn Sina.

The poetry of that period is called Nazm and prose is called nature. Ode (qasida) is the poetic composition by poets of the Abbasid period. Abu Nawas composed classical poetry on themes like wine and male love. Sufi’s glorified the intoxication caused by the wine of mystical love. An Arabic vocabulary was developed. The Father of the new Persian poetry was Radaki, a court poet under Samanids.

Rubai and Ghazals were composed. The rubai is a four line-stanza in which the first two lines set the stage, the third is finely poised, and the fourth delivers the point. Umar Khayyam of Bukhara was a famous poet who composed rubai. Diwans and Mathnavi (anthologies and epic poetry) were composed during the period of Mahmud of Ghazni. Firdausi composed Shahnama (Book of King) and Kitab-Al-Fihrist describes a large number of works written in prose for the moral education and amusement of readers. Other books written during this period were Kalilawa Dimna, Stories of Alexander and Sindbad, The Thousand and One Nights, Kitab al-Bukhala, Akhlaq, Mirrors for Princes Tarikh (Ansab al-Ashraf) and Tarikh al-Rusul Wal Muluk, Rihla and Ahsan al-Taqasim, Muruj al Dhahab and Tahqiq mail-Hind.

 

Q.18. Explain the Quran and the difficulties in case of it as source material for the history of early Islam.

Ans. The Quran is a book in Arabic consisting of 114 chapters (Suras). Chapters are in descending order of length i.e.; the shortest chapter is the least. The first Sura is a short prayer (al-Fatihah. This book is considered a collection of messages which God gave to Prophet Muhammad between 610 and 632, first in Mecca and then in Medina. It was completed in 650 CE. The verses engraved on the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem and the coins in the seventh century are the earliest.

Problems for the use of the Quran as source material for the history of early Islam have arisen. The one is to understand it literally as the theologians believe these as the speech of God (Kalam Allah). The rationalists have given a wider interpretation of the Quran. Such a dual-position raises controversy to arrive at the conclusion. The second problem is that of events not narrated by m Quran. It only refers to the events; therefore, Medieval scholars have to make sense of many verses with the help of hadith. We see, there are many hadith written to help in the reading of the Quran.

 

Q.19. Whether the thoughts of Abdul-Latif, a twelfth-century legal and medical scholar of Baghdad, about an ideal student as extracted in this chapter are relevant to a student today?

Ans. We think the suggestions are all relevant to a student today, provided that one could construe the meaning and implication of this extract in a positive manner. We can sum up the main points suggested as under-.

• Self-conscience without the proper guidance of teachers ipso- facto is unscientific as it may be mere fiction.

• Don’t think of the limitation of the teacher but take all the good that he delivers as your review, introspection, and churning on the same would lead you to the facts.

• Don’t cram, but understand the topics in a better way as the physical presence of the book is no longer required.

• Histories, biographies, and Geography are the subjects that introduce a man to his surroundings. Analyze and compare the cause and effects of all events and activities.

• Frame opinion after study on biographies of great men cautiously by taking your nature as innocent as a child.

• Once the conclusion has arrived, stay undeniable there even if the world criticizes you.

On the basis of the above points, the study becomes perfect and scientific, for which no options remain. Here literally suggested submission before the Prophet and distrust your nature, but its implication leads to the scientific process of the study. We can replace prophet with the generalization which is made after experiments done impartially. Similarly, distrust of your nature implies cleanliness of head and heart while in a study which is necessary to grasp the sense in its basic form, and generalization thereafter would automatically provide with the apparent light in the matter so churned.

Conclusion: Hence, we can state that cramming and study are useless even in modem sense and curriculum, and the same has been started and suggested in the aforesaid extract.

 

Q.19. Outline the fiscal system adopted in the Central Islamic lands.

Ans. Fiscal System-Owing to the rapid growth of urban centers, cities, towns and, the trade, income, and expenditure of the state had also spurt up. This increased the importance of money in the central Islamic Lands. In order to pay for goods and services, coins of gold, silver, and copper were minted and circulated in bags sealed by money-changers.

Gold was brought from Sudan in Africa, silver from Europe (Zarafshan valley), and precious metals and coins were also brought from Europe. Demand for money inspired dead people to release their accumulated reserves and idle wealth into circulation. Credit facilities were also developed. Letter of Credit (Sakk) and bill of exchange (Suftajer) were used for the transfer of money from one place to another. Commercial papers like promissory notes, cheques, etc., freed merchants from the need to carry cash everywhere. It made their journey safer. Salaries to soldiers or rewards to poets and minstrels were paid in Sakk (cheques). Investment increased, and partnership businesses opened. Thus, the fiscal system under Islamic land was approximately in the modern line.

 

Q.20. Discuss the causes and consequences of the Abbasid revolution.

Ans. It was named as Dawah movement, and it brought down the Umayyads and replaced them with another family of Meccan regions, the Abbasids, in 750 CE. Abbasids were the descendants of Abbas, the Prophet’s uncle. This revolution broke out in Khurasan (eastern Iran), where a mixed Arab-Iranian population was mobilized. Arab soldiers were from Iraq and resented the dominance of the Syrians. The Umayyad regime had not reduced the taxes and their demand for privileges was left unaccepted. Iranian Muslims (Mawalis) were discriminated against by Arabs. Thus, Umayyad’s Caliph Marwan was defeated in a battle at the river Zab and thereafter, Abbasid Caliphate formed.

The Central Islamic Lands class 11 HISTORY long question:

Give a brief account of the society, its largest organization (Caliphate, Sultanate, etc.), Cultural, Vocational, literary, scientific achievements, and religion as a motive for cause and the effects in the Central Islamic Lands.

Answer:

Society is formed of individuals and individuals are the finished product of families. Again we know that family, the first unit of Society formation, actually determines the instincts and motives that manifest before him in the shape of events either good or bad as calculated by society on its perceived goals in a fixed timeline or the phase of time.

The topography, sense of realization or religion as adopted and adapted to the contemporary society, availability of sources and resources including water, humans, minerals, soil, and their proportionate adjustment (Formation of climate, temperature, precipitation, etc.)-all determine combinedly, the account of human actions in the lap of nature. Such an account constitutes the history of a particular time frame classified with certain distinctions and comparisons. We can give a summed-up account of the Central Islamic Lands as under-

A. Society-(a) Topography-We see, the central Islamic lands covered by the Mediterranean sea and Black sea at the west, the Red Sea at the south, the Arabian sea at eastern-west along with the Persian Gulf and Caspian and Aral sea at the north and north-east respectively. There are also existing rivers like the Euphrates, Nile, etc.

Impact-Trade and commerce developed at the climax. Terrestrial routes like the silk route and sea routes like the Red Sea route and Persian Gulf route were invented.

Red-Sea route-Aden and Aydhab ports of this sea started receiving Indian and Chinese goods. Eg. spices, textile, porcelain, and gunpowder.

Persian Gulf Route-Goods mentioned above were carried to Siraf and Basra ports of the Persian Gulf.

Silk Route-China reached through the oasis cities of Bukhara and Samarkand. It was the terrestrial way. Camel caravans and carts were used. These two cities were also important for trading with European countries.

Structure of Society-It indicates that leaders and businessmen were the important organs of society. There were sailors, peasants, soldiers, money-changers, common people, and slaves in the society.

Religion-Islam propagated by Prophet Muhammed who was Arab by language and a merchant by profession. Before Muhammad, there was prevalent idolatry in Islamic lands. In Mecca, there was a cube-like structure called Kaba in which idols were placed and worshiped. An idol was called Sanam and the shrine in which it was placed was called a shrine. Arabs were polytheistic and nothing was clear for the notion of a supreme God.

They began to call it Allah, as Jewish and Christian tribes living in their midst had faith in Jew and Jesus Christ. Muhammad declared him a rasul of God and suggested Salat for Arabs. This religion was called Islam and its followers were called Muslims. Rituals were very simple as one has to join with Salat, distribute alms to beggars and keep away from theft. Umma had to bear witness (Shahadat) to the existence of the religion before God as well as before members of other religious communities.

This new religion garnered the support of the mass in Mecca but the affluent section of society created problems for the propagation of this religion. Muhammad had to leave Mecca and went to Medina. This day was later adopted as the first day of the Hijri era in the Muslim calendar. In order to create a religious bound political institution, Muhammad converted Umma into a wader community to include polytheists and tv Jews of Medina under political institution. He made certain ethics and rituals matching with the demand- of society and the circumstances. Agriculture, trade, Zakat, and ghazwa were the source of survival for the community. Thus, rituals to the effect of abstaining from the theft were removed.

Initially, all were nomadic people divided into Qabilas like Quraysh. After Muhammed, his descendants became Umayyads, Abbasids, Mawalis, Kharjis, etc. However, they all were Muslims and followers of Islam. Shias and Sunni sects were also formed during Ali, the fourth Caliph’s regime.

B. Political Structure-Muhammed established Islam religion along with the political organization, initially of his tribe Quraysh and then conversion of Christians, Jewish, etc. into Islam. Raids on Meccan caravans and nearby oases kept alive in order to keep the populace well earned and satisfied.

As Muhammed had died intestate, Umma became powerful and its leader was accepted as Caliph or deputy of Prophet Mohammad. The Amir Almuminin did not even take care of the wife, uncle, cousins, etc. for leadership which created a rift and internal conflicts which we see as the Battle of the Camel (657), Battle at Siffin (northern Mesopotamia), the assassination of Uthman and Ali Abbasid revolution, etc.

Under the Caliphate system, Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman, and Ali reigned as Caliph i.e. deputy to the Prophet. After Ali’s assassination, other Caliphs were the Umayyads and Abbasids. The first four Caliphs ruled from 632 to 661 (i.e. 29 years), Umayyads ruled from 662 to 750 C E. (i.e. about 90 years) and Abbasids ruled from 751 to 810 (i.e. 59 years). The Caliphate system declined gradually in 810 CE and the Sultanate System came into existence.

The first Turk was Mamluk. He had to tackle Buyids (Iranian title holders of Shahanshah), Fatimids, Tahirids, Samanids, and Tulumids. Thus, Central Islamic Lands witnessed a number of rulers as Caliphs of the Turk dynasty from 810 to 961 C E when Alptegin, father of Mahmud of Ghazni established Ghaznavid Sultanate. Thereafter, Seljuq Turks i.e. Tughril and Chagrin Bag, two brothers, ruled as Sultan when this title was given to him by the Caliph al-Qaim.

Crusades took place during the eleventh to the thirteenth centuries. Christians wanted Palestine but could not achieve success even after the three crusades they conducted. Finally, the Mamluks (Sultan) drove them under a Jihad started first by Salah al-Din (Saladin) his predecessor.

We can state that the Central Islamic land had witnessed a blend of governing systems under the Caliphate and Sultanate.

C. Agriculture-Three kind of landholding i.e.

1. Small

2. big and

3. the large estates.

The state had overall control on agricultural land and a large chunk of the coffer was contributed by the land revenue. Revenue for land was named Kharaj which varied from half to a fifth of the produce- Muslims were given concession as only Ushr (One-tenth of the produce) was charged as tax r Kharaj from them. Immigration facilities were given extra heed and care by the Caliphs and other rulers. We see the Iqta System was adopted from the tenth century onwards. Crops like cotton, oranges, bananas, watermelons, spinach, and brinjals were grown and exported to Europe.

D. Culture-Tafsir, Judith, Sharia, Mazhab, etc. were consolidated and society followed the rules under Sharia. Reasoning (Qiyas) was also given importance while writing Sharia for the Muslims. Owing to differences in the interpretation of sources and methods of jurisprudence, four schools of law were formed. These were-Maliki, Hanafi, Safii, and Hanbali schools known in the name of their propounders of the jurists.

A group of religious-minded people was known as Sufis. They were believers in Rahabaniya and mysticism. They were like sadhus in Hinduism. Sufis sought to renounce the world and rely on God alone. Does this settle society influenced by the ideas of pantheism and? love. Rabia of Basra, Bayazid Bistami of Iran and Dhulnan Mistri, etc. were the Saints or Sufis:

Greek philosophy, mathematics, and medicine were the subjects taught in schools that coincide with other Arabic subjects of the central Islamic lands. These new subjects promoted critical inquiry and had a profound influence on, Islamic intellectual life. The logic was used to defend Islamic beliefs. A number of books were written on medicine, law, and humanities. Prose and poetry saw exquisite growth. Poets of Persian origin revitalized and reinvented Arabic poetry and challenged the cultural hegemony of the Arabs. Pahlavi, the Iranian language, suffered a setback: Its version was prepared and it Was named New Persian. This language was preferred by all Caliphate and other rulers of the Sultanate during that phase of the time. Rudaki was considered the father of New Persian poetry and UmarKhayyam brought rubai : (Persian poem) to the climax. A number of books in history, geography, humanities (stories, fables, etc.) were written in this period of history.

E. Economy-

1. Urbanization took place and garrison cities, port cities, and capital cities were established. These were in Kufa, Basra, Baghdad, Damascus, Aleppo, Alexandria, Daylam, Samarkand. Samaria, Antioch, and Tripoli.

2. Goins of gold, silver, and copper were minted. Bags filled with coins were sealed by money changers. Gold was brought from Sudan (Africa) and silver from Zarafshan valley in Central Asia. Precious metals and corn came from Europe.

3. Letters of Credit and bill of exchange etc. methods of payment were adopted.

4. Family businesses set-up everywhere. Businesses were also run through employees like firms. and companies of the modern period. When rib was declared unlawful, the people adopted hiya i.e. earning of interest on transactions in an unfair way.

5. Ample supply of coins and trade promotion developed the trend of investment. People began releasing their accumulated reserves and idle wealth into circulation.

Conclusion-Thus, on the basis of the above parameters, discussed,

We can conclude that nomadic tribes of the Central Islamic Lands gradually formed political institutions mainly on the Aristocracy line and a blend of religion and politics is witnessed from the sixth to thirteenth centuries. Several Caliphates and Sultanates were formed and declined during the period of seven hundred years. Civil wars, crusades in varied colors and forms were fought one after another. In the fields of language, literature, architecture, and economy we observe, certain progress has been achieved.

Q. 1. When was Islam founded? Discuss its religious beliefs.

Ans. Islam was founded in around 612 CE by Prophet Muhammad. In this year, he declared himself to be the messenger (rasul) of God. He preached a new religious doctrine. Those who accepted the doctrine were called as Muslims. All of them were part of a society, known as Umma.

Religious Beliefs of Islam. Religious beliefs of Islam are incorporated in the Holy Quran.

They are as follows:

(1) Allah alone should be worshiped.

(2) Man would bear fruit of his deeds on the Day of Judgment.

(3) Each Muslim must follow these five principles:

(i) Allah is the only God and Muhammad is His Prophet.

(ii) He should pay namaz five times a day.

(iii) He should distribute alms to the poor.

(iv) He should keep rozas during the month of Ramzan.

(v) He must pay a visit to Mecca once in his lifetime.

(4) No Muslim should worship idols.

(5) He should not indulge in interest-making and should abstain from theft.

(6) He should follow fixed rules of marriage and divorce.

(7) He should believe in equality of people.

(8) He should be liberal and full of good qualities.

(9) He should consider the Quran as the holy book.

Q. 2. Describe the expansion of Islamic State and main aspects of society under Prophet Muhammad.

Ans. Prophet Muhammad created a political order in Medina which gave his followers the required protection. He also resolved the ongoing civil strife in the city. The Umma was converted into a wider community so that the polytheists and the Jews of Medina could be included under the political leadership of Muhammad. Prophet Muhammad also added and refined rituals (like fasting) and ethical principles. In this way, he consolidated the faith for his followers.

Expansion of the Islamic State. Initially, the Muslim community survived on agriculture, trade and on alms tax (Zakat). Except this, Muslims also used to organize raids (ghazw) on Meccan caravans and nearby oases. After some time, Mecca was conquered by Muslims. As a result, Muhammad’s reputation spread far and wide as a political leader and religious preacher. Many tribes, mostly Bedouins, were impressed by Muhammad’s achievements and they converted to Islam. In this way, they joined the Muslim society. So the alliances of Muhammad began to spread in the whole of Arabia. Medina became the administrative capital of this emerging Islamic state and Mecca became its religious center. The Kaba was cleansed of idols. It became necessary for Muslims to face the shrine while offering prayers. Just within a short span of time, a large part of Arabia was united by Muhammad under a new faith, community and state. The early Islamic polity remained, for a long time, a federation of Arab tribes and clans.

Q. 3. How did the Islamic authority expand under the Caliphs?

Ans. After the death of Muhammad, a number of tribes broke away from the Islamic state. Some of them even raised their own Prophets to establish communities on the basis of Umma.

(i) The first Caliph, Abu Bakr, launched a number of campaigns to suppress the revolts.

(ii) The second Caliph, Umar, adopted the policy of expansion of the power of Umma. The Caliph was aware of the fact that Umma cannot be maintained with the small income which comes from trade and taxes. For this, a lot of money was required, which is why the Caliph and his military commanders mustered their tribal strength so that the lands of the Byzantine Empire in the west and the Sasanian Empire in the east could be conquered. The Byzantine and Sasanian both empires had huge resources.

Christianity was promoted by the Byzantine Empire and Zoroastrianism was patronized by the Sasanian Empire which was the ancient religion of Iran. On the eve of the Arab invasions, strength of both of these empires had declined because of religious conflicts and revolts by the aristocracy. That is why, it became very easy for the Arabs to conquer their territories through wars and treaties. Arabs brought Iraq, Syria, Iran and Egypt under the control of Medina with three successful campaigns (637–642 CE).

Arabs became successful because of military strategy, religious fervor and weakness of the opposition.

(iii) The third Caliph, Uthman, launched further campaigns to gain control over Central Asia. In this way, just within a decade of the death of Muhammad, the vast territory between the Nile and the Oxus came under control of the Arab-Islamic state. These lands remained under Muslim rule to this day.

Q. 4. What do you understand about the ‘Abbasid Revolution’? Throw light on the decline of the Umayyad dynasty and the foundation of the Abbasid dynasty.

Ans. The Umayyad dynasty had to pay a heavy price for their success in centralising the Muslim polity. The Abbasid revolution was a well organized movement, called dawa, launched by the Abbasid to end the rule of the Umayyad dynasty. In 750 CE, the Umayyad dynasty was replaced by the Abbasid dynasty. The Abbasid’s called the Umayyad regime as evil and claimed that they will restore the original Islam of the Prophet. Abbasid Revolution and Decline of Umayyad Dynasty.

The Abbasid revolution started in the distant region of Khurasan in eastern Iran. This place had a mixed culture of Arab-Iranian. The Arab soldiers here mostly came from Iraq. They disliked the dominance of the Syrians. The Arab population of Khurasan also disliked the Umayyad regime. It was so because they had made promises of tax concessions and privileges which were not fulfilled.

On the other hand, the Iranian Muslims were exposed to the scorn of the race conscious Arabs. That is why they were eager to join any campaign to remove the Umayyad dynasty.

Success of Abbasid Revolution. The Abbasids were the descendants of the Prophet's uncle. They promised different Arab groups that a messiah from the Prophet’s family would liberate them from the oppressive Umayyad regime. In this way, they legitimized their bid for power. Their army was led by Abu Muslim, an Iranian slave. He defeated Marwan, the last Umayyad Caliph, in a battle at the river Zab. In this way, the Umayyad dynasty declined and the Abbasid Revolution succeeded.

Q. 5. How did the Caliphate break up in the Arab Empire? Why did the Buyid rulers keep the Abbasid Caliph as the symbolic head of the Sunni subjects?

Ans. From the 9th century, the Abbasid state became weaker because of the following two reasons:

(i) There was a decline of Baghdad’s control over the distant provinces.

(ii) There was conflict between pro-Arab and proIranian groups in the army and bureaucracy.

A civil war broke out in 810 CE, between the supporters of Amin and Mamun, two sons of the Caliph Harun-al-Rashid. It led to deepening of factionalims. It also created a new power bloc of Turkish slave officers (mamluk). On the other hand, Shiism again started competing with Sunni orthodoxy for power. As a result, many small dynasties came into being. These small dynasties included Tahirids and Samanids in Khurasan and Transoxiana and the Tulunids in Egypt and Syria. In this way, Abbasid power remained limited only to the areas of central Iraq and Western Iran.

In 945 CE, Baghdad was captured by the Buyids which was a Shiite clan from the Caspian region of Iran (Daylam). Consequently, the Abbasid rule completely ended.

Reason for keeping the Abbasid Caliph as the Head of the Sunni Subjects. The decisions of Buyid rulers of keeping the Abbasid Caliph as the symbolic head of their Sunni subjects was a shrewd one. It was so because another Shiite dynasty, the Fatimids, was making plans to rule over the Islamic world. This dynasty, the Fatimids, claimed to be descended from the Prophet’s daughter Fatima. Due to this, they claimed as the sole rightful rulers of Islam. They conquered Egypt in 969 CE and established the Fatimid Caliphate. They made Fustat as their capital instead of the old capital of Egypt, Qahira (Cairo).