From the Beginning of Time class 11 history MCQ & SAQ

From the Beginning of Time class 11 history NCERT SOLUTION:

13. Can you list the inputs that went into tool making? What were the processes that were strengthened by tool making?

Answer:

Increase in size and capacity of brain

Visual surveillance, long distance walking, while foraging and hunting

Upright walking (Bipedalism)

Hands freed for using tools and carrying infants, objects

 

The processes which were strengthened by the making of tools were:

In the process of making tools, man interacted with varieties of stone and wooden materials; his mental capacity, material knowledge with specific technical skills improved. This improvement shifted man's mode of earning food from scavenging to hunting and crop cultivation. Now he could use tools to hunt animals and to process the meat by separating bones.

2. Humans and mammals such as monkeys and apes have certain similarities in behavior and anatomy. This indicates that humans possibly evolved from apes. List these resemblances in two columns under the headings of (a) behavior and (b) anatomy. Are there any differences that you think are noteworthy?

Answer:

Humans and mammals such as monkeys and apes have certain similarities in behavior and anatomy. This shows that humans possibly evolved from apes.

Resemblances in behavior:

Both can climb on trees

Both can stay as groups and look after their babies by carrying them and feeding them.

Both use oral sound to communicate with each other

Resemblances in anatomy: Both have -

body hair

a long gestation period following birth

mammary glands

different types of teeth

ability to maintain a constant body temperature

Noteworthy differences:

• Some features of human tool making are not known among apes.

• Certain anatomical and neurological (related to the nervous system) adaptations have led to the skilled use of hands, due to the important role of tools in human lives. Monkeys and apes have no such physical neurological features.

• Moreover, the ways in which humans use and make tools often require greater memory and complex organizational skills, both of which are absent among apes and monkeys.

Discuss the arguments advanced in favor of the regional continuity model of human origins. Do you think it provides a convincing explanation of the archeological evidence? Give reasons for your answer.

Answer:

The regional continuity model (with multiple regions of origin) argues that the archaic (the old) Homo sapiens in different regions gradually evolved at different rates into modern humans, and hence the variation in the first appearance of modern humans in different parts of the world. The argument is based on the regional differences in the features of present-day humans. Supporters of this theory advocate that these dissimilarities are due to differences between the pre-existing Homo erectus and Homo heidelbergensis populations that occupied the same regions.

However, the available evidence of the earliest fossils of modern humans from Omo in Ethiopia disproves the claims of the regional continuity model.

Which of the following do you think is best documented in the archeological record: (a) gathering, (b) tool making, (c) the use of fire?

Answer:

Tool making is best documented in the archeological record. The earliest evidence for the making and use of stone tools comes from sites in Ethiopia and Kenya. It is likely that the earliest stone tool makers were the Australopithecus.

ANSWER IN A SHORT ESSAY

Discuss the extent to which (a) hunting and (b) constructing shelters would have been facilitated by the use of language. What other modes of communication could have been used for these activities?

Answer:

• Hunting and constructing shelters would have been facilitated by the use of language because these two activities are group activities requiring collective labor and cooperation among fellow humans.

• Humans certainly had to communicate with each other during the group activities. Language was a vital tool in these group activities.

Other modes of communication:

• Gestures or hand movements, other non-verbal communication such as singing or humming, imitation of movements and sounds of birds and animals, cave paintings and other expressions with signs could have been used for these activities.

Choose any two developments each from Timelines 1 and 2 at the end of the chapter and indicate why you think these are significant.

Answer: Timeline- 1

2.6-2.5 mya - Earliest stone tools

The earliest evidence for the making and use of stone tools comes from sites in Ethiopia and Kenya. It is likely that the earliest stone tool makers were the Australopithecus. Tools enabled man to become hunter from scavenger, and then cultivator of his own crops for food.

0.8 mya- 'Archaic' sapiens,Homo heidelbergensis

The earliest fossiLs from Europe are of Homo heidelbergensis and Homo neanderthalensis. Both belong to the species of archaic (old) Homo sapiens. The fossils of Homo heidelbergensis (0.8-0.1 mya) have a wide distribution, having been found in Africa, Asia and Europe.

Timeline- 2

Development of voice box -200,000 years ago

The brain of Homo habilis (the tool maker) had certain features which would have made it possible for them to speak. Thus, language may have developed as early as 2 mya. The evolution of the vocal tract was equally important. This occurred around 200,000 years ago. It is more specifically associated with modern humans.

Invention of sewing needles- 21,000 years ago

The trapping of fur-bearing animals (to use the fur for clothing) and the invention of sewing needles are important developments in human history. Early man had used grass, leaves, tree bark, and animal skin to protect his body from harsh weather. The invention of sewing needles made it possible to stitch cloth and make many strong and durable dress materials. Man started experimenting with various types of naturally available fibrous materials such as silk, cotton, wool, jute. This revolutionized his material condition and culture. The earliest evidence of sewn clothing comes from about 21,000 years ago.

From the Beginning of Time class 11 history MCQ: 

Question. Population pressure in some areas increased due to the

(a) end of ice age.

(b) change in climate.

(c) increase in food availability.

(d) domestication.

Answer :  C

Question. Under which one of the following treaties was Greece recognised as an independent nation?

(a) Treaty of Vienna

(b) Treaty of Versailles

(c) Treaty of St. Germain

(d) Treaty of Constantinople of 1832

Answer :  D

Question. What is the base of the classification of fossils of early humans?

(a) Bone Structure

(b) DNA

(c) Muscle Structure

(d) None of the above

Answer :  A

Question. The name of a hunting-gathering society living in Kalahari’ Desert was

(a) Chesowanja

(b) Pred mosti

(c) Kung-san

(d) Schoningen

Answer :  C

Question. Anthropologist is a specialist who

(a) Studies the social traits and behavior.

(b) Studies human culture and societies as well as evolutionary aspects of human biology.

(c) Studies the general policies and ethics adopted by the society.

(d) Studies the ancient remains and antiques.

Answer :  B

Question. Zagros mountains, which form one limit of the Fertile Crescent, is situated in:

(a) Egypt.

(b) Lebanon.

(c) Iran.

(d) Syria.

Answer :  C

Question. In the Eastern Hadza community, the lands belonged to

(a) Women

(b) Headmen

(c) Clan

(d) No one

Answer :  D

Question. Hominids immigrated from Africa to Asia during the period

(a) 5.6mya

(b) 0.8mya

(c) 2.0 – 1.5mya

(d) 2.2 – 2.0mya.

Answer :  C

Question. Long forelimbs, Curved hand and foot bones, and mobile ankle joints helped ______ to live on trees.

(a) Hominidae

(b) Neanderthal

(c) Hominoids

(d) Australopithecus

Answer :  D

Question. Anthropologist is a specialist who

(a) Studies the social traits and behavior.

(b) Studies human culture and societies as well as evolutionary aspects of human biology.

(c) Studies the general policies and ethics adopted by the society.

(d) Studies the ancient remains and antiques.

Answer :  B

Question. Who, among the following, was the architect of the process of ‘National Unification’ of Prussia ?

(a) Metternich

(b) Guiseppe Mazzini

(c) Victor Emmanuel

(d) Otto von Bismarck

Answer :  C

Question. The Hominids survived for about:

(a) 1 Million years

(b) 2 Million years

(c) 3 Million years

(d) 4 Million years

Answer :  A

Question. A subgroup amongst primates which emerged by about 24 mya is known as _________.

a) Hominoids

b) Hominids

c) Homo

d) None

 

Answer  :  A

Question. The name of a hunting-gathering society living in Kalahari’ Desert was

(a) Chesowanja

(b) Pred mosti

(c) Kung-san

(d) Schoningen

Answer :  C

Question. The Hominids belong to a family which is known as _____

(a) Hominidae

(b) Neanderthal

(c) Clan

(d) Australopithecus

Answer :  A

Question. Period of Homo erectus, archaicHomosapiens, Neanderthals, homo sapiens sapiens is –

(a) 5mya to lmya

(b) 60,000 years ago

(c) lmya to 40,000 years ago

(d) 40,000 years ago.

Answer :  C

Question. The earliest fossils from Europe are attributed to

(a) Australopithecus

(b) Homo Heidelbergensis

(c) Homo Habilis

(d) Homo erectus

Answer :  B

Question. The name of a hunting-gathering society living in Kalahari’ Desert was-

(a) Chesowanja

(b) Pred mosti

(c) Kung-san

(d) Schoningen

Answer :  C

Question. Large brain size, upright posture, bipedal locomotion are the distinctive characteristics of____________.

(a) Hominoids

(b) Primates

(c) Hominids

 

Answer  :  C

Question. The earliest fossils from Europe are attributed to

(a) Australopithecus

(b) Homo Heidelbergensis

(c) Homo Habilis

(d) Homo erectus

Answer :  B

Question. Foraging means

(a) to adapt

(b) to search for food

(c) to migrate

(d) to shift

Answer :  B

Question. Period of Homo erectus, archaicHomosapiens, Neanderthals, homo sapiens sapiens is –

(a) 5mya to lmya

(b) 60,000 years ago

(c) lmya to 40,000 years ago

(d) 40,000 years ago.

 

Answer  :   C

 

Question. An archeological site, which was used for quarrying limestone was:

(a) Chesowanja, Kenya.

(b) Schoningen, Germany.

(c) Dolni Vestonice, Czech Republic.

(d) Neander Valley, Germany.

 

Answer  :  D

 

Question. The last Ice Age ended around:

(a) 15,000 years ago.

(b) 14, 000 years ago.

(c) 13,000 years ago.

(d) 12,000 years ago.

 

Answer  :   C

1. The Hominids survived for about:

(a) 1 Million years

(b) 2 Million years

(c) 3 Million years

(d) 4 Million years

► (a) 1 Million years

 

2. In the Eastern Hadza community, the lands belonged to

(a) Women.

(b) Headmen.

(c) Clan.

(d) No one.

► (d) No one.

 

3. An archeological site, which was used for quarrying limestone was:

(a) Chesowanja, Kenya.

(b) Schoningen, Germany.

(c) Dolni Vestonice, Czech Republic.

(d) Neander Valley, Germany.

► (d) Neander Valley, Germany.

 

4. The term ‘pathological idiot’ has been used with reference to

(a) Australopithecus.

(b) Homo Habilis.

(c) Homo Erectus.

(d) Neanderthal.

► (d) Neanderthal.

 

5. Zagros mountains, which form one limit of the Fertile Crescent, is situated in:

(a) Egypt.

(b) Lebanon.

(c) Iran.

(d) Syria.

► (c) Iran.

 

6. The last Ice Age ended around:

(a) 15,000 years ago.

(b) 14, 000 years ago.

(c) 13,000 years ago.

(d) 12,000 years ago.

► (c) 13,000 years ago.

 

7. The main reason that led to a change from foraging to farming occupation was:

(a) Domestication.

(b) End of Ice Age.

(c) Making of iron tools.

(d) Warmer and wetter conditions.

► (a) Domestication.

 

8. Dexterity of the hands refers to:

(a) Roughness of the hands.

(b) Shape of the hands.

(c) Hardness of the hands.

(d) Flexibility of the hands.

► (d) Flexibility of the hands.

9. Population pressure in some areas increased due to the

(a) end of ice age.

(b) change in climate.

(c) increase in food availability.

(d) domestication.

► (c) increase in food availability.

 

10. Genus is the branch of the:

(a) Hominids.

(b) Hominoids.

(c) Neanderthalensis.

(d) Australopithecus.

► (a) Hominids.

 

11. ______ are the remains or impressions of a very old plant, animal or human which have turned into stone. 

(a) Fossils

(b) Neanderthal

(c) Clan

(d) None of the above

► (a) Fossils

 

12. When did Primates originate in Asia and Africa?

(a) Around 32 million years ago.

(b) Around 36 million years ago.

(c) Around 40 million years ago.

(d) Around 44 million years ago.

► (b) Around 36 million years ago.

 

13. From which organism group the hominids evolved?

(a) Neanderthal.

(b) Hominoids.

(c) Neanderthalensis.

(d) Australopithecus.

► (b) Hominoids.

 

14. What is the base of classification of fossils of early humans?

(a) Bone Structure

(b) DNA

(c) Muscle Structure

(d) None of the above

► (a) Bone Structure

 

15. The Hominids belong to a family which is known as _____.

(a) Hominidae

(b) Neanderthal

(c) Clan

(d) Australopithecus

► (a) Hominidae

 

16. Long forelimbs, Curved hand and foot bones and mobile ankle joints helped ______ to live on trees.

(a) Hominidae

(b) Neanderthal

(c) Hominoids

(d) Australopithecus

► (d) Australopithecus

 

17. Fossils found in the ______ were called Homo neanderthalensis.

(a) Barun Valley

(b) Hunza Valley

(c) Neander Valley

(d) Lidder Valley

► (c) Neander Valley

 

18. Fossils of Hominids found in Asia were not older as compared to fossils found in ______.

(a) Europe

(b) Africa

(c) Australia

(d) America

► (b) Africa

From the Beginning of Time class 11 history SAQ:

What do you understand by the term Hominid? Explain.

 

It is a member of the Superfamily Hominoidea from which hominids evolved E.g. apes. Their body is larger, they are without tail, upright posture, bipedal locomotion, and expert hands in making and using tools.

What do you mean by the term “glaciations”? How was the period following glaciations suitable for the origins of Homo?

Glaciations in the period of the Ice age. The temperature receded and the larger parts of the earth were covered with ice. Periods of warm, wet, and cold dry climate have been known to alternate from the beginning of time. Grassland areas expanded owing to a sudden change in temperature, the earlier genus Australopithecus had gone extinct due to the loss of forests. Thus, the species adapted to drier conditions originated among which Homo (i.e. modern-looking humans) was one of the species.

 

Why is Tanzania considered important from the angle of the discovery of the earliest societies’

It was Olduvai Gorge or ravine located in the Serengeti plain of northern Tanzania in Africa where the archeologists found the maximum amount of information about hominid activity over the last 2 million years. Olduvai is a deep ravine extended more than forty kilometers in length. Animal bones and remains of forty individuals . have been found here. There were also found traces of 150 species of extinct animals. Mary and Louis Leakey had identified these fossils and remains of 1.85mya in the early twentieth century. They also found chopping tools and flake tools there.

 

What were the ways of obtaining food among early societies?

As per evidence obtained by archeologists, there were four ways of obtaining food prevalent among early societies of primates. These were-

1. gathering

2. hunting

3. scavenging and

4. fishing.

Collection of edible seeds, nuts, berries, fruits, and tubers denote gathering activity. The archeologists say, “there is very little evidence for gathering activity”. There is controversy about scavenging or foraging for meat and marrow activity adopted by hominids. The majority of opinions establish eating of the dead animals by them. It is equally possible that rodents, eggs, birds, reptiles, and insects may have been eaten by hominids. Hunting activity was adopted after a long period of scavenging activity. It came into existence around 5 lakh years ago. Evidence of hunting activity was collected from Boxgrove in England and Schoringen in Germany.

 

Whether modern humans originated from one region or several regions simultaneously? Explain logically.

There are two divergent views about the origin of modem humans:

1. Regional continuity model (with multiple regions of origin) and

2. Replacement model (with a single origin in Africa).

According to the former view, modern humans evolved at different rates in different regions. This is the reason, variations in the first appearance are found. It has been seen that there are differences in populations of Homo erectus and Homo Heidel biogenesis of the same region.

The latter view favors complete replacement everywhere of all older forms of humans with modern looking humansGenetic and physiological similarity supports this view. Fossils found at Omo in Ethiopia support this view.

 

Describe any aborigine society at present which can throw light on the hunting-gathering societies of the past.

The living memories of Hazda aborigines in Tanzania (Africa) throw light on the hunting-gathering societies millions of years ago. We see thorn scrub and acacia trees grown in Eastern Hazda, a dry land of rocky Savanna. There is no dearth of wild foods in this Savanna. Animals live like elephants, rhinoceros, buffalo, giraffe, zebra, wiser back, gazelle, warthog, lion, leopard, and hyenas are amply found here.

Apart from the flesh of these animals, Hadza society enjoys its food of roots, berries, baobab fruit, etc. Smaller animals for food are also available here. These are-porcupine, hare, jackal, tortoise, etc. Seven species of bees are also found here and honey is eaten. They make their home in the trees and caves in the rocks. They assert no rights over land and every individual of society is free to live where he desires. They frequently change and shift in their camps or dwelling places.

 

Explain the physical features of Australopithecus, the genus of the earliest primate.

This name was given to the apes whose fossils were found in South Africa. Their species is still found. This earliest form of human still retained smaller brain size, large back teeth, and limited dexterity of the hands. It is tough for them to walk a regular bipedal. They still live in trees. They have long fore-limbs, curved hand and foot bones, and mobile ankle joints. With the course of time, they could have started making tools and exerted pressure on walking. This regular exercise of body parts should have brought them in modem looking man – it can be guessed.

 

Describe the gradual evolution of modern looking humans in the sequence.

While going over the pedigree of earlier societies, we observe that they are classified into the group, the superfamily, family, genus, and species according to gradual changes in their physical forms. The order of groups contains primates in which the earliest apes/monkeys of the world in Africa and Asia are kept. At the time scale, it refers to 36 – 24 million years ago (mya). The second step of evolution which took place during 24mya is to put an underclass – superfamily. It was the period of Hominids consisting of Gibbons, orangutan, and African apes (viz. gorilla, Chimpanzee, and bonobo or pygmy Chimpanzee).

The Hominoids thereafter classified in the family during 6.4mya. These were only early humans known as Hominids. The so-called time i.e., 5.6mya grouped as a genus consisting of Australopithecus and Homo. The change in their physical features and activities during the period 2.2mya, 1.8mya, and 0.8mya were grouped in species because “Homo” had got three simultaneous growing species i.e. Habilis, Erectus, and archaic Sapiens respectively. Finally, during 0.19 to 0.16mya certain specific changes in body, mind, motors, and instincts were seen, and the historians as also archeologists had declared the resultant Homo as Sapiens sapiens or the modem-looking humans.

How can you say that the Homo heidelbergensis and Homo Neanderthalensis primates found in Germany migrated from Africa?

The first and foremost ground is that the group of African apes is most closely related to hominids. Secondly, the earliest hominid fossils are present in East Africa from about 5.6mya. while those found outside Africa are no earlier than l.Omya. One more thing that supports our assumption is that the early hominid fossils belong to the genus Australopithecus. The fossils of Homo heidelbergensis and Homo Neanderthalensis of Germany pertain to 0.8 and 0.1 mya i.e. after 4 -mya of the fossils found in Africa. Fossils of Neanderthals discovered from Europe, Western and Central Asia belong to roughly 1,30,0 to 35,000 years ago. On these premises, we can state that the earliest societies migrated from Africa to other continents including Asia and Europe.

 

When did the primates begin the use of caves and open-air sites? Give your answer with archeological evidence.

On the basis of archeological evidence, it can be stated that the primates should have used to live in caves and open-air sites sometime between 4 and 1-j lakh years ago. Two hearts, shelter 12 x 4metre and flimsy shelters had been discovered. The sites from where artifacts and other things found are Kilombe and Olorgesailie in Kenya (dated between 71akh and 51akh years ago) and Terra Amata in France (Dated between 4 lakh and 1- lakh years ago).

Construction of huts, post holes, tents, storage pits and circular patterns of dwelling places started around 35,000 years ago as traces of likewise construction have been discovered by Archeologists. The evidence of hearth can be understood as the best evidence for use of fire by primitive people during 1-lakh years ago. Such evidence is found at Chesowanja, Kenya, and Swartkrans in South Africa.

 

Write the stages of development of language in earliest societies? Do you think humans know a fully developed language from the outset?

We see every manner, effort, and application of physical organs as also mental intuitions/ instinct among primates started in a seriatim and never it got a windfall or phenomenon with the pace of increase in needs, the man had ab-initio did invention or forage. The exact time for spoken language cannot be stated as there is a certain controversy. The fossils of Homo habilis (dated between 2.2 and 2mya) discovered from Omo in Ethiopia and Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania (dated between 1.85 and 1.6mya) had certain features that would have made it possible for them to speak. Hence, we associate that period with the beginning of spoken language among primitive people.

The vocal tract was developed in them 21akh years ago. Some relate the beginning of spoken language to 40,000 to 35,000 years ago when they learned art and painting. Among hominids, the language was in the form of gestures and hand movements. According to some other scholars, the primates first learned singing and humming. It was vocal but non-verbal communication. It has been considered that humans may have possessed a small number of speech sounds in the initial stage and gradually, it would have developed in straight forward language.

 

Whether the information about living hunters and gatherers can be used to reconstruct the life of humans in the remote past?

Currently, there are two opposing views on this issue. A group of scholars applies existing data of hunting-gathering societies for interpretation of the remains of the past. They say the hominid sites dated 2mya of Turkana lakeside could have been dry season camps of early humans. Some other scholars refuse this view. According to them, ethnographic data cannot be used for understanding the past societies as the two are absolutely different e.g. present-day societies pursue some other economic activities simultaneously to hunting and gathering.

They do exchange and trade of minor forest produce or work as paid labor in the fields of neighboring farmers. There is also little consensus on the division of labor in food procurement. Somewhere we see women engage them in gathering and men hunt but at some other places, both of them are equally engaged in gathering, hunting, and tool making. However, we can say with confirmation that women had a predominant role in contributing to the food supply in such societies. In such a circumstantial position, it is difficult to make any such reference for the past.

 

What questions have been raised regarding printing, engraving, and female-male figurines discovered in remains dated 30,0 years ago? Write the explanations to them also.

We know that several remains of artifacts, including painting, engraving, etc. have been discovered in the cave of Altamira in Northern Spain, Dolni Vestonice, Predmosti, Lascaux cave, and Grotte Chauvet in France dated back 50,000 years ago.

The questions raised about them are-

1. Why do some areas of caves have paintings and not others?

2. Why were some animals painted and not others?

3. Why were men painted individually and in groups?

4. Why were the women depicted only in groups?

5. Why were men painted near animals but never women? And

6. Why were groups of animals painted in the areas of caves where sounds carried well?

Explanation-

1. Paintings of animals were associated with ritual and magic because of the importance of hunting,

2. It might have possible that those caves were meeting places for small groups of people or locations for group activities,

3. It is difficult to tell something certain about the function of female figurines.

 

Mention the name of sites and the period, the earliest fossils of modern humans discovered by archeologists.

The human fossils were found first in Ethiopia (Africa) at Omo Kibish I. These fossils relate to the period 1.951akh to 1.60lakh years ago. The fossils found in Border cave, Die Kelders, and Klasies River mouth (Africa) are of 1.201akh – 50,000 years ago. Human fossils discovered at Dares Solton in Morocco relate to 70,000 – 50,000 years ago. Similarly, the fossils at Qafzeh Skhul in Israel relate to the period 1 lakh – 80,000 years ago. Fossils found at Niah cave in Borneo dated to 40,000 the others at Lake Mungo in Australia dated to 45,000 – 35,000 years ago, that of Liujiang and Zhoukoudien in China dated to 20,000 – 15,000 years ago and that of Cro-Magnon (near Les Eyzies) in France dated to 35,000 years ago.

 

What do you understand by the term Paleolithic?

The term Paleolithic is derived from the Greek terms Palaios meaning ancient and Lithos meaning stone. Archeologists refer to the period between 2.5mya and 9000 years ago as the Paleolithic or the old stone age in Europe. Stone tools were first dated to 2.5mya and agriculture began dated to 9000 years ago.

Q.1. On what grounds it is said that the development of humans took place in an evolutionary manner?

Ans. Scientists believe that humans developed in an evolutionary manner. Many species of humans emerged and then became extinct. After the process of millions of years, modern humans originated. We get evidence of this process from the fossils of those species of humans which have now become extinct.

They had different physical features. Their period can be determined by direct chemical analysis or indirectly by dating the sediments in which they are buried. From this, it is clear that these species survived at different times. Their physical features keep on changing and thus modern humans came into being.

Q.2. What is meant by Primates? Write their main features.

Ans. Subgroup of a larger group of mammals are Primates. This group includes apes, monkeys and humans. Main features of this group are given below:

(i) They have hair on their body.

(ii) They have a long gestation period following birth.

(iii) They have mammary glands among females to feed their children.

(iv) They have different types of teeth.

(v) They have the ability to maintain a constant body temperature.

Q.3. From whom the Hominids evolve ? Write differences between the both.

Ans. The Hominids evolved from the Hominoids. Following are the differences between them :

(i) The Hominoids had a smaller brain size as compared to Hominids.

(ii) The Hominoids were quadrupedes and walked on all fours. On the contrary to it, Hominids have an upright posture and bipedal locomotion, meaning they walk on two feet.

(iii) Marked differences are there in their hands.

Hominids have such hands which enable them to make and use tools.

Q.4. Why was the name Australopithecus given to early humans?

Ans. The name Australopithecus is made up of two words—Latin word ‘austral’ whose meaning is ‘southern’ and a Greek word ‘pithekos’ whose meaning is ‘ape’. This name was given because the early humans still had the features of apes. For example:

(i) Size of their brain was smaller as compared to Homo.

(ii) They had large back teeth.

(iii) They had limited dexterity of hands.

(iv) They had restricted upright walking because they used to stay most of their time on trees. So their physical features are suited to live on trees.

Q.5. What were the advantages of bipedalism to early humans ? Where do indirect and direct evidence of bipedalism come from?

Ans. Bipedalism freed early humans' hands. Now he could use his hands for carrying infants or objects. As hands were used more and more, upright walking gradually became more efficient. Except for the advantage of freeing hands for different uses, quite less energy was consumed while walking as compared to walking as a quadruped. But this advantage of saving energy was reversed at the time of running.

Evidence of bipedalism is recovered from Hadar, Ethiopia.

Q.6. When did the phase of glaciation or an Ice Age come into being ? How and which changes it brought in the process of human evolution?

Ans. Ice Age or glaciation came into being around 2.5 million years ago. Large parts of the earth were covered with snow. It brought major changes in the climate and vegetation of the earth. There was a reduction in temperatures as well as in rainfall. That is why forests were reduced. As compared to it, there was an expansion of grassland areas. It led to gradual extinction of early forms of Australopithecus because they were adapted to live in forests. They were replaced by those species which were better adapted to drier conditions. These species include the representatives of the genus Homo.

Q.7. What is meant by Homo ? Into which classes have they been divided?

Ans. Homo is a Latin word which means ‘man’.

Scientists have divided Homo into several species.

The names given to these species are derived from their typical characteristics. Therefore fossils are classified as the following three species:

(i) Homo habilis — the tool maker

(ii) Homo erectus — the upright man

(iii) Homo sapiens — the wise or thinking man.

The fossils of Homo habilis have been found at Omo in Ethiopia and at Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania.

The earliest fossils of Homo erectus have been discovered both in Asia and Africa.

Q.8. Early man deliberately chose some sites for hunting. Why ? Explain with examples.

Ans. Early man deliberately chose some sites for hunting. One such site was Dolni Vestonice in the Czech Republic. It was near a river. Early man chose such sites as he knew about the movement of animals.He also knew about the ways of killing large numbers of animals quickly. For example, at the site chosen by early man near a river in the Czech Republic, herds of migratory animals like reindeers and horses might have crossed the river during their migration in autumn and spring season and might have been killed on a large scale.

Q.9. How do we get information about the lifestyle and open air residence of early man?

Ans. There is one way of getting information about lifestyle and open air residence of early man and that is by plotting the distribution of artifacts. For example, thousands of hand axes and flake tools have been found at Olorgesailie and Kilombe (Kenya).

These artifacts are 700,000 to 500,000 years old. The accumulation of these things at one place means that some places were visited repeatedly by early humans, where food resources were abundantly available.

People, in such areas, would tend to leave behind evidence of their presence and activities which include artifacts. The deposited artifacts would appear as patches on the landscape. Very few artifacts have been found at other places which were less frequently visited.

Q.10. Give a brief description of their placement model of human evolution.

Ans. According to the replacement model, wherever humans lived, all of his older forms were replaced with modern humans. There is evidence of the genetic and anatomical homogeneity of modern humans. It has been argued in its favor that this similarity is so because their descendents originated in a single region i.e. Africa. They went over to other areas from here. It is evident by the earliest fossils of modern humans found at Omo in Ethiopia. On the other hand, the physical differences observed among modern humans are because of living permanently at any specific place for thousands of years. Conditions of different places helped in the origin of these differences because humans adapt themselves according to specific circumstances of any particular place.

From the Beginning of Time class 11 history long question:

When did the earliest form of humans evolve and where? Why are there opposing views about the time period of evolution of the earliest form of human^, the ways of their obtaining food, certain changes in physical features, etc.?

Human fossils, stone tools, artifacts, and paintings are the only source of information regarding the beginning of human existence. It has been estimated on the basis of these sources of information that the earliest form of humans had evolved from chimpanzees in Africa. Different sites were excavated under the supervision of archeologists in Africa. These were –

1. Bahr el Ghazal, Chad

2. Hadar and Omo in Ethiopia,

3. Laetoli, Tanzania

4. Allia Bay and Kanapoi in Kenya and

5. Lothagam in Kenya.

The fossils found in Lothagam (Kenya) are dated to 5.6mya. On the basis of this information, it has been estimated that the earliest human form would have evolved in 5.6million years ago. Excavation of sites started in the year 1859 when Charles Darwin’s works – “On The Origin Of Species” got published. It had clarified the evolution of humans from animals a long time ago and it was not at all God’s specific creation.

The gradual process of evolution started as early as 24 mya from the old world monkeys of Asia and Africa. They were called Primates.

Hominids (comprising gibbons, Asian orang-utan, and African apes) evolved during 24mya. Hominids (early humans) evolved far back 6.4mya named as family. Australopithecus evolved from hominids 5.6mya and was named Genus. Then there evolved Homo which took certain physical changes in three stages i.e.; Habilis, Erectus, and archaic sapiens. Finally, dated to 0.19 – 0.16mya, the sapiens or modern-looking humans came into existence.

Reason for Controversy- An investigation on primal forms of humans started in 1859 with the publication of Darwin’s book. Till then, nothing was done as the man had been considered a specific creation. of god. Hence, it is usual to construct divergent views on several aspects relating to the evolution of human forms. The fossil of the earliest human was discovered on 17th July 1959 at Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania by Mary and L.S.B. Leakey. Maximum information was thus gathered from the human fossils found there. There are divergent views on the integration of the genus Australopithecus from Africa to Europe and Asia.

This genus was of an earlier time than Homo habilis but there is sufficient resemblance in two. Homo erectus resembles Homo sapiens and it was found both in Africa and Asia. On the V basis of that resemblance, some scholars confirm their migration from Africa to Asia while some others argue that Homo erectus did not leave Africa until one million years ago. They assume automatic change in archaic forms of Homo sapiens after 0.5mya. Again, we see divergent views about the origin of modem humans (i.e. Homo sapiens sapiens). Some scholars say its evolution at one place i.e. Africa while some others say its simultaneous origin in several countries i.e. Africa, Asia, and Europe.

In a nutshell, we would like to state that owing to the most ancient period when the evolution process of humans started, the different missions of archeologists to investigate about past history of humans, certain study manners on the fossils, artifacts, tools, and many other diverse pieces of evidence gathered by them are the causes for divergent views on each aspect of the earliest human societies. However, it remains to state that proper analysis has been made and a generalized view is supported in the process. The generalization of views finally leads us to the facts about the earliest human forms. Hence, divergent1 views are all possible while working out the things of so longer past