Changing Cultural Traditions class 11 HISTORY MCQ & SAQ

Changing Cultural Traditions class 11 HISTORY NCERT SOLUTION:

Which elements of Greek and Roman culture were revived in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries?

Answer:

Science, philosophy, art and architecture, law and religion were the elements of Greek and Roman culture revived in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries.

Compare details of Italian architecture of this period with Islamic architecture.

Answer:

Italian architecture:

Italian architecture developed with the revival of the city of Rome in the fifteenth century. The ruins in Rome were carefully excavated by archeologists. This inspired a 'new' style in architecture, a revival of the imperial Roman style - now called 'classical'.

Islamic architecture:

Religious buildings were the greatest external symbols of the Islamic architecture. Mosques, shrines and tombs from Spain to Central Asia showed the same basic design - arches, domes, minarets and open courtyards - and expressed the spiritual and practical needs of Muslims.

Why were Italian towns the first to experience the ideas of humanism?

Answer:

Italian towns were the first to experience the ideas of humanism because the earliest European universities were established there. The universities of Padua and Bologna were major centers for legal studies from the eleventh century.

Law was, therefore, a popular subject of study.

However, there was a shift in it; now, it is studied in the context of earlier Roman culture.

This educational programme suggested that religious teaching alone could not give knowledge, and other fields in society and nature that should be analyzed. This culture was 'humanism'.

Compare the Venetian idea of good government with those in contemporary France.

Answer:

There was a democratic government in Venice. The power of the city was exercised by a council represented by all the men of 25 years. In France, there was a monarchy that ruled it. The king and his family members ruled.

Answer in a short essay

What were the features of humanist thought?

Answer:

The humanists were the masters who taught grammar, rhetoric, poetry, history and moral philosophy.
They emphasized that law should be studied in the context of the culture of the ancient Greeks and Romans.
They taught that individuals themselves could shape their own lives through means other than religion, power and money.
Christian humanists like Thomas More in England and Erasmus in Holland criticized the Church and its greedy rituaIs for extorting money from ordinary people.
Some of the humanists believed that more wealth was a virtue and criticized Christianity for creating moral guilt against pleasure.
They also believed that the study of history leads man to strive for a life of perfection. They used the word 'modern' for the period from the fifteenth century.

Write a careful account of how the world appeared different to seventeenth-century Europeans.

Answer:

In the seventeenth-century, the world appeared to Europeans without any role of God in the materiaL life of humans.
From the sixteenth century onwards, many scientific discoveries were made. For example, Copernicus' heliocentric theory asserted that the earth (also other planets) rotates around the sun and disproved the Bible's notion that the earth was the center of the universe.
Johannes Kepler popularized the theory of the earth as part of a sun-centered system, in his book Cosmographical Mystery.
This revolution in science reached its climax with Isaac Newton's theory of gravitation.
The scientists had shown that knowledge of the world can be obtained only through observation and experiments of the material world, and not from the religious texts and faith in God.
Consequently, in the minds of skeptics and non believers, God began to be replaced by Nature as the source of creation.
Even the religious believers started reviewing their faith in God and started talking about a distant God who does not directly supervise the act of living in the world.

Changing Cultural Traditions class 11 HISTORY MCQ :

Question : The painting ‘Mona Lisa’ was made by

(a) Leonardo da Vinci

(b) Michelangelo

(d) Donatello

Answer : A

Question : The author of the book ‘The Prince’ is

(a) Lorenzo Valla.

(b) Gutenberg.

(d) Alberti.

Answer : C

Question : The painting 'Mona Lisa' was made by

(a) Leonardo da Vinci.

(b) Michelangelo.

(d) Donatello.

Answer : A

Question : The earliest universities in the European continent were set up in the country of

(a) France

(b) Germany

(d) England

Answer : C

Question : Ptolemy’s Almagest was a work on ______.

(a) Mathematics

(b) Astronomy

(d) Sociology

Answer : B

Question : The earliest universities in the European continent were set up in the country of

(a) France

(b) Germany

(d) England

Answer : C

Question : The universities of Padua and Bologna had been centers of ___________ studies.

(a) Medicine

(b) Legal

(d) Commerce

Answer : B

Question : Cassandra Fedele was

(a) Women humanist

(b) Orator

(d) Professor

Answer : A

Question : Renaissance is best known for its

(a) cultural developments.

(b) social developments.

(d) economic developments.

Answer : A

Question : According to the researcher writing your final report and specifying conclusions supported by the data is called Share your result

(a) Thesis

(b) Conclusions

Answer : C

Question : Petrarch was given the title of Poet Laureate in Rome in

(a) 1341

(b) 1342

(d) 1344

Answer : A

Question : Copernicus was afraid of printing his manuscript because

(a) It was not good to mankind

(b) It was a disclosure of Church’s fallacy

(d) He wanted to avoid its bitter percussions in his individual life-time.

Answer : D

Question : Renaissance is best known for its

(a) cultural developments.

(b) social developments.

(d) economic developments.

Answer : A

Question : Protestant Reformers was

(a) A document opposing church practices

(b) A movement against Catholic Church by Martin Luther, a monk

(d) Peasants’ movement opposing over-taxation.

Answer : B

Question : Andreas Vesalius was a professor of _____ at the University of Padua.

(a) Medicine

(b) Astronomy

(d) Mathematics

Answer : A

Question : When did the Renaissance occur in Europe?

(a) 11th century.

(b) 13th century.

(d) 16th century.

Answer : C

Question : The opening of trade between Europe and China started in the

(a) 9th century.

(b) 10th century.

(d) 12th century.

Answer : D

Question : William Tyndal while presenting the English version of the Bible says

(a) It will create public awareness to religion

(b) Network of Christianity would increase

(d) It will disclose how trickly the church and its clergy men have made the Bible all for their advantage.

Answer : D

Question : Ibn Rushd was an Arab philosopher of _____

(a) France

(b) Germany

(d) Spain

Answer : D

Question : The painting ‘Mona Lisa’ was made by

(a) Leonardo da Vinci

(b) Michelangelo

(d) Donatello

Answer : A

Question : The author of the book ‘The Prince’ is

(a) Lorenzo Valla

(b) Gutenberg

(d) Alberti

Answer : C

Question : Ptolemy’s Almagest was a work on ______

(a) Mathematics

(b) Astronomy

(d) Sociology

Answer : B

Question : According to sociologists aircraft was invented in

(a) 1901

(b) 1905

(d) 1906

Answer : C

1. In Arabic, the person who was known as 'Aflatoon' was

(a) Plato.

(b) Aristotle.

(d) Caesar.

► (a) Plato.

2. Petrarch was given the title of ‘Poet Laureate’ in Rome in

(a) 1341.

(b) 1342.

(d) 1344.

► (a) 1341.

3. The painting 'Mona Lisa' was made by

(a) Leonardo da Vinci.

(b) Michelangelo.

(d) Donatello.

► (a) Leonardo da Vinci.

4. The author of the book 'The Prince' is

(a) Lorenzo Valla.

(b) Gutenberg.

(d) Alberti.

► (c) Machiavelli.

5. The earliest universities in the European continent were set up in the country of

(a) France.

(b) Germany.

(d) England.

► (c) Italy.

6. The families that gave more importance to women during the 15th century were those of

(a) aristocrats.

(b) artists.

(d) scholars.

► (c) merchants.

7. Renaissance is best known for its

(a) cultural developments.

(b) social developments.

(d) economic developments.

► (a) cultural developments.

8. Anatomy, geometry, physics, as well as a strong sense of what was beautiful, gave a new quality to Italian art, which was to be called

(a) aesthetic realism

(b) epistemological realism

(d) realism

► (d) realism

9. Gregorian calendar was introduced by Pope

(a) Evaristus

(b) Gregory XIII

(d) Pius I

► (b) Gregory XIII

10. The opening of trade between Europe and China started in the

(a) 9th century.

(b) 10th century.

(d) 12th century.

► (d) 12th century.

11. By the early fifteenth century, ______ was used for those masters who taught grammar, poetry, rhetoric, history and moral philosophy.

(a) literates

(b) humanists

(d) writers

► (b) humanists

12. When did the Renaissance occur in Europe?

(a) 11th century.

(b) 13th century.

(d) 16th century.

► (c) 15th century.

13. Ptolemy’s Almagest was a work on ______.

(a) Mathematics

(b) Astronomy

(d) Sociology

► (b) Astronomy

14. Ibn Rushd was an Arab philosopher of _____.

(a) France

(b) Germany

(d) Spain

► (d) Spain

15. Andreas Vesalius was a professor of _____ at the University of Padua.

(a) Medicine

(b) Astronomy

(d) Mathematics

► (a) Medicine

Changing Cultural Traditions class 11 HISTORY SAQ:

Q. 1. For whom was the term ‘humanist’ used by the early fifteenth century?

Ans. By the early fifteenth century, the term ‘humanist’ was used for those masters who taught grammar, poetry, rhetoric, history and moral philosophy.

Q. 2. Why was stress given to close reading of writings of ancient Roman and Greek authors?

Ans. Ancient Roman and Greek civilisations were considered as distinctive civilisations. According to Petrarch, this distinctiveness could be understood only through the actual words of the ancient Greeks and the Romans. Therefore, Petrarch stressed on close reading of writings of ancient Roman and Greek authors.

Q. 3. What do you understand by humanism? Give examples of humanism in art and literature of the Renaissance period.

Ans. Humanism is an approach in which existing problems are given importance. Writers and artists of the Renaissance period showed a special interest in the present men. So, art and literature of that period are called humanist.

Q. 4. When did the modern age start? Which factors contributed to it?

Ans. The modern age started with the decline of the feudal system. The four factors, viz. development of trade, emergence of towns, rise of the middle class in the society and the Renaissance contributed to its rise. Geographical discoveries also contributed significantly to it.

Q. 5. What is meant by the Renaissance?

Ans. Renaissance means ‘rebirth’. It occurred in Italy in the fifteenth century. A new movement of knowledge started in Europe after a long dark age of ignorance. The people of Europe again began to take interest in European ancient culture and civilisation.

Q. 6. Write down any two good effects of religious wars on the life of Europeans.

Ans. (i) These wars expanded the knowledge of geographical discoveries.

(ii) Europeans came in contact with Islamic world. They adopted the knowledge of art and science of the Islamic world.

Q. 7. Tell me about the three main features of the Renaissance.

Ans. (i) Italian towns were the first centers of the Renaissance.

(ii) A new style of art emerged.

(iii) Architecture and literature developed.

Q. 8. Write down any two effects of the Renaissance.

Ans. (i) Superstitions ended with the emergence of new ideas, sentiments and assumptions.

(ii) Humanism spread among people.Consequently, man became the main topic of literary and artistic works.

Q. 9. Who were known as the inventors of the printing press? Which was the first printed book in Europe?

Ans. Gutenberg and Castor were known as the inventors of the printing press. They invented the printing press in the first half of the fifteenth century. The first printed book in Europe was probably the Bible.

Q. 10. What is meant by the Reformation movement?

Ans. By the Reformation movement, we mean a movement which was launched by Martin Luther of Germany against the prevailing wrong practices in the Roman Church. Supporters of this movement abolished corrupt practices and tried to establish improved practices.

Q. 11. Write down any two results of the Protestant Reformation Movement.

Ans. (i) People’s attitude towards religion changed and Christianity got divided into two parts.

(ii) The Pope himself came to know about his weaknesses and saved his position by the Counter Reformation.

Q. 12. What were the real motivating factors behind voyages of discoveries?

Ans. (i) To enslave people by discovering new places and earning big profits from slave trade.

(ii) A strong urge of increasing trade and earning money.

(iii) To earn name and fame by obtaining spices and gold.

Q. 13. What were the results of growth in commerce and trade?

Ans. (i) Growth in commerce and trade made Europeans prosperous.

(ii) European countries made the discovered lands their colonies and used them as markets.

Q. 14. Which two persons gave the greatest contribution to the popularity of Florence?

Ans. Dante Alighieri and Giotto gave the greatest contribution to the popularity of Florence. Dant Alighieri wrote on religious themes whereas Giotto painted life-like portraits which were quite different from stiff figures made by earlier artists.

Q. 15. What is meant by the term ‘Renaissance Man’ ? Give an example.

Ans. The term ‘Renaissance Man’ is generally used to describe an individual who has many interests and skills. There were many great individuals in the Renaissance period who had several interests and were skilled in many arts. For example, a person could be a scholar, diplomat, theologist and artist.

Q. 16. Why did humanists name the beginning of the fifteenth century as the new age or modern age?

Ans. Humanists named the beginning of the fifteenth century as new age or modern age in order to differentiate it from medieval age. They argued that the Church had complete control over men’s minds as all the learning of the Greeks and Romans had been blotted out. But in the beginning of the fifteenth century, this learning revived.

Q. 17. Discuss in brief the subject-matter of Ptolemy’s Almagest.

Ans. Ptolemy’s Almagest was a work on astronomy. It was written in Greek before 140 CE and later it was translated into Arabic. It carries the Arabic definite article ‘al’, which brings out its Arabic connection

Q. 18. Give a brief introduction of Ibn Rushd.

Ans. Ibn Rushd was an Arab philosopher of Spain. He tried to resolve the contradiction between philosophical knowledge and religious beliefs. His method was adopted by Christian thinkers.

Q. 19. Which two things played a significant role in transmitting humanist ideas to people ?

Ans. (i) Humanist subjects began to be taught in schools and colleges.

(ii) Art, architecture and literature also played an effective role in transmitting humanist ideas.

Q. 20. Who was Andreas Vesalius?

Ans. Andreas Vesalius (1514 – 64) was a professor of medicine at the University of Padua. He was the first person who dissected the human body. It led to the beginning of modern physiology.

Q. 1. What changes helped in the revival of Italian culture after the fall of the Western Roman Empire?

Ans. Political and cultural centers in Italy fell into ruin after the fall of the Western Roman Empire. No unified government was there during those times.

The Pope was not quite strong in European politics although he was sovereign in his own state. For a long time, regions of Western Europe were reshaped by feudal relations and were unified under the Latin Church. Changes were being brought in eastern Europe under the Byzantine Empire. Islam was creating a common civilisation in further west.

Italy was a divided and weak country. These changes helped in the revival of Italian culture.

Q. 2. What is meant by the Renaissance?

Ans. The Renaissance is called by the names of rebirth, reawakening, re-rise of intellectual awakening and culture, etc. After the thirteenth century such circumstances arose and made man awakened. This awakening is known as the Renaissance. The Renaissance is originally a French word, which literally means ‘to rise again’. In the context of analysis of European history, the Renaissance has its distinct period. This age is generally considered between the fourteenth and the sixteenth centuries (1350 – 1550 CE). In fact, the beginning of modern Europe is accepted from the Renaissance. In ancient times, Europe was at the peak of civilisation. This peak was seen in Greece and Rome. In the medieval age the Greek and Roman civilisations almost vanished. They revived in the Renaissance period. Once again faith in the secular world was shown. Humanism achieved importance. Conservatism was replaced by logic. Natural beauty was again worshiped. All these things had no place in the medieval age. But in the Renaissance period, such circumstances rose and re-established the ancient values.

Q. 3. What were the causes of the rise of the Renaissance in Europe?

Ans. The causes of the rise of the Renaissance in Europe were as follows:

(i) The Crusades: The crusades, fought in the medieval age, played a special role in showing a path of new learning. These crusades were fought by Christians to free Jerusalem from the Turks. These continued from the end of the eleventh century to the thirteenth century. The crusades deeply influenced the social, economic and intellectual aspects of Europe.

(ii) The Reformation Movement: During the Reformation Movement, many scholars challenged the rights of the Church. Common people began to think for the first time that the Church’s rules were not ultimate. This new approach awakened the ideas of man.

(iii) Geographical Discoveries: Geographical discoveries also revolutionized the ideas of man. Marco Polo’s invention of the compass made voyage easier. The Italian scientist Galileo invented the telescope. Newton systematized scientific valuations about the universe. Copernicus researched and tried to prove that the earth is not stable, rather it rotates around the sun. These new discoveries gave birth to new ideas.

(iv) Invention of Printing Press: The invention of the printing press greatly contributed to the development of the Renaissance. Earlier, texts existed in a few hand-written copies. Therefore, the expansion of education was very limited. Johannes Gutenberg of Germany set up the first printing press. The invention of the printing press greatly increased the number of books. Now books were available in great numbers which expanded education and exposed the fallacious propagation made by the Church.

(v) The Turks’ Occupation of Constantinople: In 1453 CE, the Turks occupied Constantinople. It greatly strengthened the Renaissance. Terrified by the cruelties inflicted by the Turks, many Greek Christians took shelter in different parts of Europe. The propagation of the Greek civilisation made by these people casted a deep effect on Europeans. This effect tried to re-awaken European ideology.

Q. 4. Why is it said that the Renaissance started a new age ?

Ans. The Renaissance undoubtedly started a new age. Following were its main reasons :

(i) The Renaissance ended conservative assumptions of ancient and medieval societies. Now people began to discuss their problems.

(ii) It broke the feudal bonds and established nation-states.

(iii) Before the Renaissance, people had blind faith in the principles of the Church. But now they began to doubt the truthfulness of these principles and examined everything on the basis of logic. Consequently, an age of scientific thinking started.

(iv) The Renaissance originated many new ideologies in art and literature. Many writers wrote satirical essays and painters attacked polluted society and politics in their paintings. All these things indicated the beginning of the modern age.

Q. 5. Write a short note on Humanism.

Ans. Humanism was one of the basic features of the Renaissance. Humanism means ‘to take interest in man and respect him’. Humanism studies the problems of man, accepts the importance of human life and tries to improve and make his life prosper. In the Renaissance period, the existing world in which we live was given more importance than the next world. This is humanism. The supporters of humanism were called humanists. Petrarch was a leading humanist. He criticized superstitions and the lifestyle of religious leaders.

He stressed on leading the existing life happily rather than thinking about the next life. Italian citizens supported humanism because they were not able to develop their natural instincts because of religious bonds. In fact, a feeling of secularism was the main ideology of humanism.

Q. 6. What were the chief objectives of the Reformation Movement?

Ans. The chief objectives of the Reformation Movement were as follows :

(i) To check religious absolutism and limitless rights of the Pope and other religious leaders.

(ii) To improve the moral life of the Pope and other religious leaders.

(iii) To remove corruption spread in the Church and divert attention of religious leaders to spirituality.

(iv) To emphasize the establishment of a national church.

(v) To make common people dependent on God more than the Pope, for attainment of salvation.

(vi) To give religious freedom to every man.

In Spite of all these objectives, it can be said that this movement was basically launched to abolish the ancient conservatism of Europe.

Q. 7. Write a short note on the Counter Reformation Movement.

Ans. The Counter Reformation Movement came into existence as a result of the Reformation Movement. In fact, many defects had crept into Catholicism, but the followers of the Roman Catholic Church did not care for it. Consequently, the Reformation Movement gained momentum and many European countries separated themselves from the Roman Church. It worried the Roman Catholic people.

Now they cared for removing defects of the Roman Church. There began efforts to combat the spread of Protestantism. In Spain, Ignatius Loyala set up the Society of Jesus. His followers were called Jesuits.

They visited several places in Germany and France and re-converted people to Catholicism. For preaching their religion, they set up Jesuit schools in China, Africa, India and America also. This movement was known as the Counter Reformation Movement.

Consequently, Catholicism again began to become popular. Reforms in the Roman Church hindered the progress of Protestantism.

Q. 8. What was the significance of the growth of trade and the emergence of towns in the Renaissance Age?

Ans. Growth of trade and emergence of towns in the Renaissance Age broke several old traditions and started new things. In fact, all credit for taking Europe to the modern age from the dark ages goes to trade and towns.

I. Significance of Growth of Trade.

The growth of trade had the following significance:

(i) Rise of the Middle Class. Growth of trade gave rise to a new class in society. This was middle class, completely different from feudal lords or peasants. This class had wealth and could do anything with the help of money.

(ii) King became strong. Before the growth of trade, the king was only a puppet in the hands of feudal lords. He took money from feudal lords due to which he accepted their whims and wishes. If they were cruel to people, the king tolerated it silently.

But the growth of trade helped in the emergence of a merchant class, which cooperated with the king. The king could take money from this class and thus increased his military power. As military became strong, feudalism ended and nation-states emerged.

(iii) Decline in Power of the Church and the Feudal Lords. The third class needed security. They needed this security not only in a single sphere but in the whole state. They traded in far-off regions. So this class helped the king whole-heartedly. The king became powerful and attacked the autocracies of the Church and the feudal lords and thus became free from them. If it were not so, it would have taken hundreds of years in the emergence of the modern age.

II. Significance of the Emergence of Towns.

Emergence of towns had the following significance:

(i) Freedom from Feudal Slavery. The emergence of towns loosened feudal bonds. Rich merchants lived in towns and gave money to get the towns free. Now feudal lords and kings had no influence over these towns.

(ii) Free Atmosphere. Citizens enjoyed complete freedom in these towns. They could think freely and do any thing that they wished. These free thoughts ended the dark age and co-operated in bringing about the modern age.

Q. 9. Which customs and traditions of the Roman Catholic Church and the clergy were objected to by the reformists in the fifteenth and the sixteenth centuries?

Describe the reasons for the emergence of the European Religious Reform Movement (the Protestant Movement).

Ans. The Protestant ‘Religious Reform Movement’ implies the branch of Christianity which was started against the customs and traditions of the Roman Catholic Church. Its founder was Martin Luther. Following were the reasons for the emergence of this Religious Reform Movement:

(i) The Church had accumulated an abundance of wealth and property. The Pope and priests appointed to high posts began to lead a luxurious life due to which many people began to hate them. It became a main reason for the emergence of the Reformation Movement.

(ii) Posts of priests in the Church were being sold. Consequently, people opposed the Church.

(iii) The Pope and the clergy sold ‘indulgences’. People did not like it and therefore raised a strong voice against the Church.

(iv) The Pope collected many kinds of taxes and duties from people and himself led a luxurious life. So people were against the Church.

Q. 10. Briefly discuss the Arabs’ contribution to science and philosophy.

Ans. Through the middle ages, monks and clergymen were familiar with most of the writings of the Greeks and Romans. But they did not spread these writings widely. In the fourteenth century, many writers read the translated works of Plato and Aristotle. These translations were a contribution of Arab translators who had carefully preserved and translated ancient manuscripts.

While European scholars read Arabic translations of Greek books, Greek scholars translated works of Arabic and Persian scholars, so that they could be transmitted to Europeans. These works were on mathematics, natural science, medicine, astronomy and chemistry. Ptolemy’s ‘Almagest’ carries the Arabic definite article ‘al’ which brings out the Arabic connection.

Among the Muslim writers were Ibn Sina, who was an Arab physician and a philosopher of Bukhara in Central Asia, al-Razi, who was an author of a medical encyclopaedia. They were regarded as men of wisdom in the Italian world.

Ibn Rushd, who was an Arab philosopher of Spain, tried to find a solution to the tension between religious beliefs and philosophical knowledge. Christian thinkers also adopted his method.

Mention the names of women intellectually creative during the period of the renaissance in Europe.

Answer:

Women like Cassandra Fedele and Marchesa Isabella were educated in Latin and Greek. Fedele proved that women can also become a humanist scholar and requested every woman to: acquire humanist education. She said-Even though the study of letters promises and offers no reward for women and no dignity, every woman ought to seek and embrace these studies. Her writings bring into focus the> general regard for education in that age.

Another Lady Isabella D'este ruled the state while her husband. was absent and the court of Mantua was framed for its intellectual brilliance.

Discuss the underlying principle presumptions constituting independent city-states in Italy.

Answer:

The Government in those city-states was of democratic type as the Government of Venice city was a republic. Some others were court-cities ruled by princes. Underlying principles of constituting these city-states can be summed up as under:-

It was an institution of CommonWealth. It was the supreme authority of the city-State through the Council.
There was a Council constituted by members, all gentlemen of the city who had attained the age of 25 years.

Interpretation of the term Gentleman eligible to membership of the council-

(a) He should be wealthy and qualified.

(b) His Lineage must be noble, not blamed, convicted, tried.

Mention the major developments which took place between the period fourteenth and seventeenth centuries in the orderly timeline.

Answer:

(a) Literary/Institutional/Educational Developments

Humanism as a subject of study incorporated into the curriculum of Padua University in Italy (1300).
University established in Florence. (1349)
Academy of Sciences set-up in Paris (1643).

(b) Published/Translated Works

The Bible was first printed by Johannes Gutenberg, who made the printing press (1454).
Thomas More’s Utopia was published (1516).
Martin Luther wrote the Ninety Five Theses (1517).
Martin Luther translated the Bible into German (1522).
Andreas Vesalius wrote in Anatomy (1543).
Isaac Newton’s Principia Mathematica published (1687).
Geoffrey Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales published (1390).

Brunelleschi designed the Duomo in Florence (1436).
Leonardo Da Vinci paints The Last Supper (1495).
Michelangelo paints the Sistine Chapel Ceiling (1512).

(d) Exploration/Inventions

Portuguese mathematicians calculate latitude by observing the sun (1484).
Columbus reaches America (1492).
Gerhardus Mercator prepares a cylindrical map of the earth (1569).
Gregorian Calendar introduced by Pope Gregory XIII (1582).
William Harvey links the heart with blood circulation (1628).
Petrarch was given the title of poet Laureate in Rome (1341).

(e) Conquests/Wars

Ottoman Turks defeat the Byzantine ruler of Constantinople (1453).
Anglican Church was established in England with the King as its head (1559).
Peasants uprising in Germany (1525).

Locate Venice on the map of Italy and look at G.Bellini's paintings. How would you describe the city and in what ways was it different from a Cathedral town?

Answer:

Venice is in the vicinity of Padua where a university was set up in Italy. This city is on the coast side of the Adriatic sea. As we see in the painting made by G. Bellini under the title-“The Recovery Of The Relic Of The Holy Cross”, there were multi-story buildings duly ventilated as we observed a number of windows around them. There are chimney-like structures in every building. We see roads and lakes between the rows of these buildings. There were ponds, well decorated on which boats had been rowed. People used to gather around the ponds and enjoy rowing, squatting, and discussing their day-to-day businesses. Here we see no market place in the lanes or streets passing between the buildings.

Cathedral towns were settled on the ruins of the towns of the Roman Empire. These Cathedrals were built by Churches from the money contributed by rich merchants. Actually, large Churches belonging to Monasteries were called Cathedrals. The area around … these Cathedrals became popular because they had become the center of pilgrimage. Gradually, grand towns were settled around these – churches. There was a town square, a church, roads where merchants built shops and homes, an office or auditorium where the people lived. governing the town could meet and discuss the issues. There was high sense constructed around these towns with several gates for entrance and exit. There were parks, shady trees, playgrounds, and bridges to cross the ditch which was dug for defense around these towns.

Describe the different scientific elements in the work of sixteenth-century Italian artists.

Answer:

Following facts we can mention herein, that confirm the different scientific elements in the works of Italian artists-

1. As a professor at Padua University, Andreas Vesalius had dissected the human body till then, the artists went to the laboratory of that university and studied skeletons there. They started working after studying the right structure of a man.

2. Fragments of art discovered from the ruins of the Roman empire became helpful to the Italian artists as perfectly proportioned men and women were sculpted in them. On the basis of this study, one of the sculptors, Donatello , made lifelike pictures in 1416.

3. Leonardo da Vinci, a botanist, Physiologist, and mathematician was also an artist. He has painted the Mona Lisa and The Last Supper.

His self-portrait given in this theme is vibrant and catchy. Hence, scientist’s involvement helps in the development of artifacts.

4. Scientists' taste in arts like sculptures naturally had to emerge with life-like vibrancy in the artifacts like The Pieta by Michelangelo, Praying hands drawn by Durer, etc.

5. They understood respect in Geometric designs and they understood changing the quality of light. Their pictures acquire a three-dimensional quality.

Conclusion-Thus, we observe that anatomy, geometry, physics, and moreover, conscience to understand the beauty in its immortal form were the ingredients to Italian art.

Compare the aspirations of women (Fedele) and men (Castiglione). Did they have only a weapon of a particular class in mind?

Answer:

Aspirations for Women (Fedele)

She had advocated the need for the promotion of education among women.
She criticized the definition of freedom as it was in the constitution of republic city-states. Eg. Venice because it favored the desires of men over those of women.
She advocated humanist education and wished for women to acquire that education.
She stated-“Even though theoretically, women are understood as a broader figure than that of men, practically, no regard is seen for women in European society. Hence, women should come up to the surface and by virtue of educating them in Humanist Education acquire their respected place in the society.”

Aspirations for Women by a man Castiglione

Women are of different ways, manners, words, gestures, and bearing more than men. They, therefore, take over the portfolio of a certain soft and delicate tenderness, feminine sweetness in every gesture (while moving, staying) and in all activities they do.
He condemns women’s mimicry or copying of men. He thinks her portfolio is different in anatomy and actions.
He also considers that virtues like simplicity, generosity, etiquette, prudence and witty, politeness, tolerance, industriousness, and benevolence glue this common difference between the man and woman. These are; equally necessary in both males and females.

Thus, Balthasar Castiglione, the author of ‘The Courier’, condemns r rivalry between men and women owing to sex difference. He wants to refer that both are like wheels of life carriage and live with maintaining the proportionate difference between but it should not be made a cause for discrimination. Nature itself has bestowed one with delicacy and the other with a robust and sturdy body. This structure should be maintained with a matching soul and its manifestation.

What were the issues on which the Protestants criticized? the Catholic Church?

Answer:

Catholic Church in criticism by Protestants

According to William Tyndale, the clergymen had still not made available copies of the Bible in their mother tongue because they were not intended to keep them still in the dark.
This they had done so that they might sit in the conscience of the mass through vain superstition and false doctrine to satisfy their proud ambition to bag honor from them above the King and even above God.
Martin Luther was the leader of the Protestant Reform movement. He said a person doesn't need priests to establish contact with God. It is the faith of God that can guide the people to the right life and entry into heaven.
The Church had held supreme power i.e. The First Order had no specific portfolio in the ruling.
Some radical opinion was that God has created all people as equal. Hence, they have the right to choose their priest and there is no need to pay taxes to the Catholic Church.
As Head of the Catholic Church (i.e. Pope) had failed in performing its duty to the masses, the King should be made the head of the Church in his place/state and not the Pope.
Monasteries had been indulged in corrupt practices by the fourteenth century in Europe.

Why would Copernicus have kept as a secret his life-long theory telling the true position of the earth?

Answer:

The emotion of fear is actually the first barrier that has crippled the progress of mankind in History. It is perhaps due to ignorance or an evasive trend towards facts of life and death, both invariable. No doubt, Copernicus was a scientist and thinker of the renaissance period; his attachment to status, position in Christian society restricted him to get the real theory published in his lifetime. Had he shown adventure, the Christian world would have known the truth earlier and gas salary ended earlier than it had removed. This fear of individual life had thus prevented Copernicus from a good deed for mankind. He wanted to live a life in comfort but the publication of his theory would have annoyed the First Order in Europe (i.e. clergy) resulting in the loss of them all.

He could assign his manuscript De Revolutionibus (The Rotation) to Joachim Rheticus, one of his followers. It says-“The planets including the earth, rotate around the sun.'' The illusory statement of clergymen on the same fact was-“The earth is a sinful place and the heavy burden of sin made it immobile. It stands at the center of the universe around which the planets' ' viz. Earth was understood to be immovable and at the center of Circumambulating all other heavenly bodies around it.

We see prima facie contradictions in both theories. It would have certainly robbed worldly comforts of the loss of life; hence, Copernicus deliberately had caged the truth.

How many aims could conclude the dynamism of earth to the extent this fact was accepted by society and we read about them in our science books?

Answer:

The first and foremost astronomer was Copernicus who gave an observation that planets including the earth rotate around the Sun.

The second brain was that of Johannes Kepler (author of Cosmographical Mystery) who said-“Planets move around the sun not in circles but in ellipses”.

The third brain was that of Galileo Galilei (author of The Motion) who stated-“The Solar family constitutes several planets and sub-planets including earth revolving around the sun”.

Thus, the fact that earth is a rotatory planet i.e. Blue Star was confirmed by three brains at distinct periods of time; hence, we now read this fact and understand it easily.

What do you understand by the scientific revolution in Europe during the period of the renaissance?

Answer:

It was the phenomenon of understanding knowledge and’ belief in their true meaning. It gave the human mind power of logic and not an easy acceptance of things under common or orthodox assumptions. Actually, the author like Galileo remarked that the Bible lights the road to heaven but does not say how heaven works. These scientists said that belief is orthodox, sophistication, indiscreet state of mind while knowledge is a product of observation and experiments thoroughly for a longer period. Hence, acquire knowledge through inquisitiveness of mind. In the minds of skeptics and no-believers, God began to be replaced by nature; hence, natural sciences like physics, chemistry, and biology expanded rapidly.

Conclusion-On the basis of a human inquisitive mind equipped with logic, natural things were taken for deep observation and experiments thereby revival of knowledge; it was all true to say the renaissance was a period of the scientific revolution.

Would you say the renaissance was confined to Europe during the period from the fourteenth to the seventeenth century?

Answer:

No, we cannot describe it as a period of renaissance only confined to Europe because Asia and Africa almost in full were connected with Europe during the period in question. A number of sea and terrestrial routes were discovered and maritime trade was in its youth. It is true that Europe could attain cultural changes by the classical civilization of Rome and Greece but technologies and skills in Asia had moved ahead of what the Greeks and Romans had known. Thus, we can state that the Europeans have not learned just from the Greeks and Romans, but from India, Arabia, Iran, Central Asia, and China also. It is a universal fact that papyrus was first invented in China and then paper making techniques had spread to European cities.

On the above basis, we would like to state that renaissance in; Europe is owed to renaissance much before sprouted but not described in pages of history due to Europe-centered view-point of historians in ‘ Asia and Africa. Apart from the expansion of maritime trade, the expansion of Islam and the Mongol conquests gave Europeans the opportunity to see ‘ and they learned the technologies discovered earlier in Asia.

What do you understand by Private and Public spheres of Life? Explain.

Answer:

The private sphere of life consists of the family and personal religion while the public sphere means the area of government and of formal religion. These two spheres became separate during the period between the fourteenth and seventeenth centuries. An individual was not simply a member of one of the three orders but he was also a person in his own right. He was not just a member of the guild but he was known for himself. It subsequently became a basis for the principle that all individuals had equal political rights.

Do you agree with Albrecht Durer’s statement that Art is embedded in nature, he who can extract it, has it? Justify your answer with illustrations?

Answer:

Yes, Albrecht Durer is correct in stating art’s dwelling in nature. Nature in its physical sense, we observe; embeds in it, beautiful landscapes, landforms, vegetation with changing seasons, water bodies including ponds, fountains, springs, rivers, rivulets, and oceans of different size and shape, the flora and fauna, varied altitudes of mountains and hillocks, isle, island, etc. In its metaphysical sense, it embeds resipiscence, power of imagination, gregarious spirit, dedication and devotion, loyalty, dutifulness, etc. a number of virtues.

It depends, however, on the individual, how he can glorify his actions by positive views of his own nature with that of nature in its physical forms. In case, the artist applies his physical, mental and emotional powers duly balanced and motivated by inner conscience, the imagination will excel and proposed art gets acclamation from the masses.

Whether Jacob Burckhardt, Professor at the University of Basel in Switzerland is correct in saying that history is as much concerned with culture as with politics? Explain.

Answer:

Culture during the period of 14th to 17th century in Europe was considered as humanities as used by a Roman lawyer and essayist Cicero. It was derived from the Latin wood humanities. Grammar, law, rhetoric, poetry, history, and moral philosophy were the subjects of humanity. Discussion and debates were stated to be necessary to develop knowledge in these subjects. Here we see that all these subjects are made for society and rules for ideal living, these all contain themselves. Politics itself tells the processes of social organization and leadership which is possible only when culture is studied and a smooth link between both is established.

In brief, we can conclude that History itself is both the story of culture and politics. Culture determines which type of governance is possible at the material time and the ruler skilled in culture can only lead the masses. History tells about the education, manners, standard of living, customs, and traditions all incorporated in culture. It simultaneously enables us to know about the government, organization of society during a specific period of time.

Imagine that why would eligibility for membership to Council under the institution of the commonwealth be confirmed to gentlemen of the City, State in Italy?

Answer:

A cursory perusal of the commonwealth and government of Venice composed by Cardinal Gas Paro Contarini reveals that only gentlemen who had attained the age of 25 years were made eligible to the Council and common people were denied membership. Here common people were understood as those ignobly born, poor, and the people who were very rude and antisocial. It means cruel, unsober, insolvent, misconduct, loose-character people were deemed as common people.

Their instincts and nature are always unchangeable and nothing else but only disruption in Council, they would have made. Hence, they were denied membership. I would like to describe this criterion of selection of members to the Council, the major cause of the renaissance which developed from the city-states of Italy. Modern democracy is owed to the city-states however, only seeming or virtual appearance has corrupted this system to the extent that criminalization of politics in India has emerged. Thus, we see the citizenship approach has sprouted in Italy. ^

Write an essay on the Universities in Europe during the 14th to 17th century.

Answer:

The genesis of the approach to open universities in Italy was the growth of trade and commerce there. Commerce being the chief activity in the city, demand for lawyers and notaries had been spurt up. They were required to write and interpret rules and written agreements. Later on, Francesco Petrarch had brought change because, by his efforts, the law was studied in the context of earlier Roman Culture. Thus, education programs or curriculum in universities incorporated the subjects of humanities till then, known as culture.

These subjects were grammar, rhetoric, poetry, history, and moral philosophy. The teachers teaching these subjects were addressed as humanists. These subjects were not drawn from or connected with religion and emphasized skills developed by individuals through discussion and debate. Extracting the approach of Plato and Aristotle, a humanist of Florence Mirandola states that as bodily energy is strengthened by gymnastic exercise, so beyond doubt in this wrestling place of letters, as it were, the energy of mind becomes far stronger and more vigorous. Thus, he states debates as a wrestling-place of letters and considers their necessity for making the mind far stronger and more vigorous.

Conclusion-Addition of humanities to the curriculum of University coincided with the study of law which had made the city-states and court- cities in Italy, more progressive and prosperous. We see the well-planned cities of Venice and Florence. Dante Alighieri had written on religious themes and Giotto had painted lifelike portraits in Florence which gradually made that city intellectual and a center of artistic creativity. The term Renaissance often used to describe a person with many interests and skills like Leonardo Da Vinci and Michelangelo.

‘Models of painting as found in Italy are the most catchy’. Why?

Answer:

The artists in Italy were experts in more than one art. For instance, Leonardo Da Vinci was a botanist, physiologist, Mathematician, and painter, all in one. Similarly, Michelangelo Buonarroti was a Painter, Sculptor, and designer. Leonardo Da Vinci had painted the Mona Lisa and the Last Supper. He had invented the flying machine also.

Buonarroti painted the ceiling in the Sistine Chapel, made a sculpture “The Pieta” (in which Mary is holding the body of Jesus) and he himself had designed the dome of St. Peter’s Church. One more person i.e. Filippo Brunelleschi was an architect and sculptor. He had designed the Duomo of Florence. –

The reasons for being Italian art catchy are thus, all apparent. Firstly because it got the hands of scientists and mathematicians. Knowledge of Geometry helped them to understand the perspective and that by noticing the changing quality of light, their pictures acquired a three-dimensional quality. Secondly, they used oil as a medium for painting which gave the greatest richness of color to paintings. We can observe the influence of Chinese and Persian art on these paintings. It could possibly be due to the Mongol invasion and expansion of their empire.

Why does Italian architecture in the sixteenth-century appear the most excellent and admirable?

Answer:

We can give the following reasons for that excellence in architecture-

They (Architects) copied many features of Imperial Roman buildings which were until then carefully excavated by the archeologists.
Architects were skilled in science, mathematics, geometry, etc. subjects.
Wealthy merchants and the Pope had patronized the architects and incentives, as also perks were provided with them.
Architects were trained in classical Roman architecture and that of Chinese and Persian arts.
Archeologists excavated the ruins of palaces, attics of the Roman style, and architects studied them in-depth.
As artists were known individually, by name hence, it inspired them more to exhibit their specialty in architecture.

Do you ascribe the printed books as major aspects of bringing renaissance in Italy? Explain.

Answer:

Yes, the availability of promoted books increased the pace of the renaissance in Italy. 150 copies of the Bible were first printed in the workshop of Johannes Gutenberg, the German who set-up the first printing press. Prior to that, texts existed in a few handwritten copies which could be read-only by the noble and wealthy merchants.

With the installation of the printing press, a number of universities and school’s set-up and scope of the curriculum had been enhanced. There was no dearth of textbooks, the translated versions of ancient Roman and Greek literature on science, architecture, language, Mathematics, moral Philosophy, etc. As printed books became available, it was possible to buy them and students did not have to depend solely on lecture-notes. Thus, ideas, opinions, and information moved more widely and more rapidly than before. This developed the reading habits among people.

When the printing facility increased, the number of authors began to increase also. Authors on the concept of humanity like Francesco Barbara and Lorenzo Valla. In his-On Pleasure, Valla criticized the Christian’s injunction against pleasure and stressed prudence, good manners in dress, and acquisition of education in good culture. There were developed women, writers, also. Venetian Cassandra Fedele, Marchesa of Mantua, and Isabella d’Este were pioneers among them. These writers emphasized women’s education and empowerment.

Conclusion–On the basis of the above points, the contribution of books to Italian society is all apparent and the renaissance was brought to Italy with the help of books on several subjects including humanism, grammar, rhetoric, poetry, history, law, moral philosophy, religion, politics, natural sciences, etc.

What were the revolutionary ideas of Petrarch and what they did?

Answer:

According to Petrarch, antiquity was a distinctive civilization that could be best understood through the actual words of the ancient Greeks and Romans.

These revolutionary ideas inspired the archeologists in the excavation of remains in Rome. It brought a new style of architecture. The classical books were translated into local languages and thus, public awareness was created. The clergymen were known to Roman and Greek Literature but they had not made these widely known to the masses. So deciphered books brought real light to the masses and they protested the Church under the flag of the Protestant Reform movement led by Martin Luther. A humanist writer of Florence, Giovanni Pico Della Mirandola inspired the public to acquire knowledge through discussion and debates. A number of universities were established and subjects of humanities were added to their curriculum.

Why did the humanists divide the middle ages into the medieval period of a millennium in the Dark Ages, The Early middle ages, and the late middle ages?

Answer:

According to the humanists, the dark age had set-in after the collapse of the Roman empire in the fourth century. They enumerated a period of 500 years under the Dark Ages. This was the reason, the later historians assumed that the new age had begun in Europe from the fourteenth century. They argued that in the Middle Ages, the Church had pressed humans to forget all the learning of the Greeks and Romans. It had introduced the system of vassalage or Feudal System in order to enjoy first order in the society.

‘Multilingual translation of the works of Greek writers on one hand and that of Arabic and Persian on other European languages had helped in the transmission of science and technology:- Do you agree with this statement?’

Answer:

Yes, we agree with the above statement because there were books on subjects like administration, mathematics, moral philosophy, grammar, and poetry but beyond the reach of common people. The Church was not willing to propagate its actual contents in order to maintain its supremacy. However, in the fourteenth century, they were translated by Arab people in the Arabic language which could be easily understood by the masses. Some Europeans, just after perusal of these books in the Arabic language, retranslated them into the local languages of Europe.

Muslim writers were Ibn Sina, Al-Razi, and Ibn Rushd. An Arab philosopher Ibn Rushd had tried to resolve the tension between philosophical knowledge and religious beliefs. His methods were adopted by Christian thinkers. Thus, the translation of books in several languages helped in the promotion of science and technologies not only in Italy but in all other parts of Europe also.

Give a brief account of the new concept of human beings.

Answer:

It was against the control of religion over human life.,
Acquisition of material wealth, power, and glory is a usual instinct of human beings and cannot be tantamount to vice.
The study of history leads a man to strive for a life of perfection hence, Christian injunction against pleasure is untenable.
A person of culture should learn good manners including politeness and simplicity.
Individuals irrespective of poor and weak are capable of shaping through other means.
Self-interest is the most powerful motive; hence, a cordial and congenial environment for the proliferation of self-interest should be provided to the people.

Give a brief account of woman status in Europe during the 14th to 17th century.

Answer:

Women were given no political rights.
Families were dominated by husbands.
Money obtained in dowry was invested in the family businesses but women had no say in how that business should run.
If the father could not arrange to suffice, his daughter would go to the convent to live the life of a nun.
They were keepers of the households without any public role given to them.

Thus, on the above points, we can state that the patriarchal system was strictly followed in Europe in which women were treated as mere instruments in the hands of their husbands without any right in property and role in public life.

Do you think all women in Europe during the period 14th to 17th century were equally neglected? If not, describe the social and family status of other women?

Answer:

We would like to state here that the position of women in families of merchants and bankers was somewhat different than those of common women in the society. In these families, women used to work as partners to the firm or business and were responsible to look after the businesses when the male members were away at work.

A few women in European society were intellectually more creative and sensitive about the importance of humanist education. One among these women, Cassandra Fedele wished to see all women duly educated in humanism. She had stated-“Even though the study of letters promises but offers no reward for women and no dignity”. That lady was proficient in Greek and Latin and was invited to give orations at the University of Padua in Italy.

She criticized the constitution of republics in which women’s freedom was hanged on the desires of men. Another woman was the Marchesa of Mantua, Isabella d’Este who ruled the state while her husband was absent and the small state of Mantua proliferated under her skilled administration. These women writers wished economic power, property, and education to women so that they could make their respected place in the men -dominated society of Europe.

What were the percussions of a new culture of humanism all over the world from Italy? Discuss.

Answer:

The new culture of humanism spread all over the world because of trade and travel, military conquests and diplomatic contacts of each two countries as routes of them pass through Italian towns and courts. The different response it could bag from diversified institutions which we can mention as under:-

(a) Churches-In north Europe, the members of the Church summoned Christians to practice religion in the way laid down in the ancient texts of their religion, discarding undue rituals. They told them additions were made to the simple religion.

The philosophers there declared that the Almighty has allowed man to live with complete freedom in the pursuit of happiness. Humanists like Thomas More and Erasmus of England and Holland respectively assumed the Church's role as extortionist, simple and common people. Clergy would say to the devotee, fill my bag and attain indulgences against whatever crime/offense you have committed. Such practice was not allowed in religion in its original and simple form.

(b) Rebels and movements-Taxes imposed by the Church were protested by peasants. The Church's interference with state matters restricted the princes. The Emperor would issue the document pertaining to the donation of Constantine under his own discretion-was the demand of resented Christians.

Martin Luther, a monk-led the Protestant Reformation movement against the Catholic Church voicing no need for priests in divine matters and it is faith that guides the course of life and to salvation. Luther’s ideas were popularized by Ulrich Zwingli and Jean Calvin.

Radicals protested under the stimulus of Salvation, a state where oppression is ceased in full.

A scholar like William Tyndale in course of Bible translation, stated frankly that it was a trick of clergyman not to make available, the scriptures translated in local languages to the mass with malicious intention to keep them in dark and fill their head and heart with rules, laws, canons fabricated by Clerics for their advantage.

Result-

Catholic Church allowed Protestants to worship as they chose.
The illiterate section of society was driven with the same whip.
The King or Queen became the head of the Church. Pope’s supremacy ended.
Society of Jesus set-up in an attempt to face Protestants by Ignatius Loyola in Spain.

Changing Cultural Traditions class 11 HISTORY long question:

Q. 1. Discuss the contribution of universities to the rise and growth of Humanism.

Ans. Universities in Europe were set up first of all in Italian towns. From the eleventh century, the Universities of Padua and Bologna had been centers of legal studies. It was so because commerce was the chief activity in these cities. So there was an increasing demand for lawyers and notaries. These people wrote and interpreted rules and wrote agreements. Without these, trade on a large scale was not possible.

Therefore, law was a popular subject of study. But there came a change in the study of law. It was studied in the context of earlier Roman culture. This change was represented by Francesco Petrarch (1304–78). According to him, antiquity was a distinctive civilisation which could be best understood with the help of actual ancient Greek and Roman words. Therefore, he stressed that these works of ancient writers must be thoroughly studied. The meaning of the new educational programme was that a lot of things are there which must be learnt and these things cannot be given by religious teachings alone.

This new culture was labeled ‘humanism’ by historians of the nineteenth century. By the early fifteenth century, the term ‘humanist’ was used for those teachers who used to teach poetry, grammar, rhetoric, history and moral philosophy. The word ‘Humanities’ was derived from the Latin word ‘humanitas’ many centuries ago; the word ‘humanitas’ had been used by the Roman lawyer and essayist Cicero (106–43 BCE) to mean culture. Thus, humanism was called ‘humanist culture’. These revolutionary ideas also attracted the attention of many other universities.

Among these was the newly established university in Petrarch’s own home town of Florence. Till the end of the thirteenth century, the city of Florence hardly became famous as a center of trade or learning. But this situation changed very quickly in the fifteenth century. The city of Florence had come to be known because of Dante Alghieri and Giotto. As an artist, Dante wrote on religious themes and Giotto painted life-like portraits. Giotto’s portraits were very different from the stiff figures made by earlier artists. From then, the city developed as the intellectual city and a center of artistic creativity in Italy.

Q. 2. What is meant by the Renaissance? Discuss its major characteristics.

Ans. The Renaissance stands for ‘rebirth’. The Renaissance in fact was a movement which took western nations from the darkness of the medieval age to the light of the modern age. They were influenced by the ideas and styles of modern age. Man began to think freely which set new standards in literature, art and science. Major Characteristics of the Renaissance:

Major characteristics of the Renaissance were as follows:

(i) Dominance of Logic. The Renaissance freed society bound in medieval religion and customs and promoted logic. Aristotle’s logic guided to it Universities like Paris, Bolone, Oxford and Cambridge, etc., promoted the significance of the ideology of logic. Now any thing which proved right on the test of logic was accepted.

(ii) Importance of Experiment. According to Roger Baker (1214–1294), we obtain knowledge through two ways–through discussion and through experiment. But discussion ends with a question and we also stop to think over it. It neither ends doubt nor does it satisfy our mind. It does not happen until we are able to achieve the truth through experience and experiment. These views of Roger Baker promoted experimentation and investigation.

(iii) Humanism. Humanism was one of the basic features of the Renaissance. Humanism implies taking interest in man and respecting him. Humanism studies the problems of man, accepts the importance of human life and tries to improve his life and make it prosperous. In the Renaissance Age, the existing world was given more importance than the afterworld. The existing world is the world in which we live. This is humanism.

(iv) Worship of Beauty. Worship of beauty was another characteristic of the Renaissance. Artists tried to present an attractive face of man in their works. Mona Lisa’s fascinating smile is the greatest example.

Q. 3. Why did the Renaissance emerge only in Italy?

Ans. The Renaissance emerged in Italy between 1350 CE and 1550 CE. From Italy, it spread to Germany, France and other European nations. Following were the reasons for the emergence of the Renaissance in Italy:

(a) Italy was a famous trade center. Growing trade in Italy and her prosperity strengthened the tendencies of the Renaissance.

(i) Towns like Milan, Naples, Florence, Venice, etc., were set up in the country. Merchants of these towns visited the Balkans, western Asia, Byzantine and Egypt. There they met Iranian merchants. These contacts of exchange of ideas developed an ability to accept each other’s ideas. Besides, most museums, public libraries and theaters were set up in towns, not in villages. It gave a new direction to the cultural life of Italy.

(ii) Prosperity of Italy gave birth to a middle class of merchants. This class did not care for the Pope and feudal lords and violated medieval age’s customs and traditions. It strengthened the feeling of the Renaissance in Italy.

(iii) Many merchants patronized writers and artists. As a result, writers and artists got a chance to freely show their abilities. Only Florence patronized numerous artists and writers. Writers and artists like Dante, Petrarch, Angelo, Leonardo, Machiavelli, etc., rose in this town. Thus, it is clear that increase in wealth diverted the learning of art and artists towards the Renaissance.

(b) Another reason for the emergence of the Renaissance in Italy was that it had been the birthplace of the ancient Roman civilisation. Several monuments of the ancient Roman civilisation found in Italian towns remind people of the Renaissance even today. They wanted to see Italy as great as ancient Rome. Hence, the ancient Roman culture proved a source of information for the Renaissance.

(c) Rome was the center of the whole western European Christian world. Here the pope resided. Inspired by the feeling of the Renaissance, some of the popes brought scholars to Rome and got the Greek manuscripts translated into Latin language by them. Pope Nicolas VI established the Vatican library. He also built St. Peter’s church. These works naturally showed their effect at other places also.

(d) Politically, Italy was a suitable place for the Renaissance. Along with the decline of the Holy Roman Empire, many independent city-states had been emerging in northern Italy. Besides, the feudal system in Italy was also not so strong. Consequently, the free atmosphere of these city-states developed new ideas in the minds of citizens.

(e) In the medieval age, religion had an influence on education. But in Italy, education was free from the bounds of religion because of the growth of trade. Here professional learning, geographical learning, etc., possessed a proper place in the syllabus. As a result, science and logic gained strength.

(f) In 1453 CE, the Turks occupied Constantinople. Most of the Greek scholars, artists and merchants escaped to Italian towns and resided there. These scholars also brought with them many valuable manuscripts of the ancient Greek literature.Some of the scholars took to teaching in schools and universities of Italy and thus created a new awakening.

Q. 4. Which were the leading personalities of the Renaissance Age? Discuss their achievements in art, literature and science.

Ans. Many great personalities were born in the Renaissance Age. They set new standards in art, literature and science with their brilliance and inventions. Some of the major personalities and their achievements are discussed below:

(i) Petrarch. Petrarch was a great writer and poet of Italy. He was honored with the title of State Poet by the Roman emperor in 1341 CE. He was considered a symbol of humanism. He criticized contemporary society and attacked the existing educational system.

(ii) Michelangelo. Michelangelo was a great artist of the Renaissance Age. He was a painter and sculptor of high level. The best works of his painting can be witnessed on the ceiling of the Roman Church. A painting of his ‘The Fall of Man’ is world-famous. He is regarded as a messenger of humanism.

(iii) Raphael. This great painter of Italy was a contemporary of Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci. His most favorite work was the painting of Jesus’s mother Madonna, which is the pride of Rome even today. He drew several pictures on topics related to Christianity and decorated walls of churches and palaces with didactic subjects.

(iv) Thomas More. Thomas More was born in London. He had been Chancellor of England. He portrayed a picture of an ideal society in his famous book. The British Government filed a suit against Thomas More and in 1353 CE he was sentenced to death.

(v) Machiavelli. This resident of the Italian town of Florence is considered the Father of Modern Political Science. In his world famous book, ‘The Prince’ he has presented a picture of a new imagination of the state. In it, he has also described the art of governance. In his view, there is no relationship between religion and politics. His ideas deeply influenced the modern system of government.

(vi) Leonardo da Vinci. He possessed multidimensional brilliance. He was a printer, sculptor, engineer, scientist, philosopher and poet. He also tried to design an airplane. Among his printings, the ‘Last Supper’ is very famous.

(vii) Gutenberg. He was a German. In the beginning, he used to polish diamonds and mirrors. He invented material and machines essential for printing. He was the first man who set up a printing press in 1450 CE.

(viii) Martin Luther. Martin Luther was also a German. In 1517 CE, he visited Rome. There he witnessed weaknesses of the Pope and the Church. When he returned to Germany, he launched the Reformation Movement against these evils. As a result of the Reformation Movement, the Protestant branch of Christianity emerged. He translated the Bible into German. His book ‘Table Talk’ is famous among the books written by him against the Church. He strongly opposed the indulgences.

(ix) John Wycliffe. He lived in England and is called the ‘Morning Star of the Reformation Movement’, because he tried reformation in Christianity before Luther. He translated the Bible into his mother tongue with the help of his students. The Church declared him atheist and burnt many of his writings.

(x) Galileo. Galileo was born in the Italian town of Pisa. He was a mathematician of high level. In 1609 CE, he invented the telescope, which made the sea-journeys convenient. He was amongst the first persons who declared that the earth is a planet which rotates around the sun.

(xi) Copernicus. Copernicus lived in Poland. He was an astronomer who provided knowledge of the speed of different planets in the sky. He also said that the earth and other planets rotate around the sun.

(xii) Dante. He was the greatest poet of Italy. He also worked in the army and had been a judge. He suffered many hardships in his life. It was those hardships that made him the greatest poet. The ‘Divine Comedy’ is his greatest work. Dante has described an imaginary journey to heaven and hell in it.

(xiii) John Huss. He was a lecturer at Prague University. He raised voice against the ills of the Church. Consequently, he was burnt alive in accordance with the Pope’s command.

(xiv) Francis Bacon. Francis Bacon was an English politician and writer. He is best known for his great essays.

(xv) William Harvey. Harvey lived in England. In 1610 CE, he explained how blood circulated from the heart to different parts of the body and again returned to the heart.

(xvi) Andreas Vesalius. He lived in Belgium. He was the first who gave a complete description of the human body in his book, ‘De Humani Corporis Fabrica Libri Septem’.

(xvii) Cervantes. Cervantes lived in Spain. He was a great warrior and successful writer. His book ‘Don Quixote’ is counted among the world's greatest works and it has been translated into almost all languages. In this book, there are described stories of bravery of medieval age’s feudal lords.

Q. 5. What were the consequences of the Reformation Movement?

Ans. Following were the consequences of the Reformation Movement:

(i) Social Consequences. This movement ended superstitions and pretentiousness. A common citizen was able to study the Bible. Scientists also have freedom in their studies. The Church’s property began to be distributed amongst peasants and the middle class and people were free from the burden of the Church’s taxes.

(ii) Reformation Movement in Catholicism. Several reforms were made in Catholicism. A council was called at Trent for reforms in the Catholic Church. Meetings of this council continued for eighteen years. The Pope’s dominance and his rights to interpret the Church and scriptures were accepted. The Bible’s version of Latin was also authenticated. The Church stopped the sale of ‘Letters of Indulgences’. Training of the Church’s officials was made more effective.

(iii) Political Consequences. The Church’s influence in political life decreased. As a result, kings’ power increased. The Pope’s external influence ended. All this contributed to the rise of nation-states.

(iv) Promotion of Commerce and Trade. The Renaissance abolished the feudal system and progressed trade. A prosperous middle class emerged as a result of the progress in trade.

(v) Spread of National Language and Literature. Public languages and literature developed as a result of the Renaissance. Martin Luther translated the Bible into German. He published many articles on religion in the German language. Religion was preached in other countries in their respective public languages. The respect once enjoyed by the Latin language was now begun to be enjoyed by public languages.

Why would have this theme named Changing Cultural Traditions? Find the reasons in context with several developments that took place during the 14th to 17th centuries in European society? Would you call it Renaissance or circumstantial regression and revival of cultural pursuit?

Answer:

We would like to state that Italy has acted as the axial or nucleus to accumulate all traditions and political set-up all over the world, particularly Asia and Africa and the rest parts of Europe; in its vision and sprout with conclusive cream aspects of them all. Italy got this opportunity because of passing all maritime and terrestrial routes through it.

The major developments mutely observed by Italy i.e. the place of emergence of renaissance all over world were-vassalage in Western Europe, its unification and the Latin Church, Eastern Europe under the Byzantine Empire, and Islam’s missionary zeal to create a common civilization.

A model had formed in Italy with changes in cultural tradition and then transmitted to all over the world. Therefore, the title of the theme is consistent with the content.

Results Surfaced:-

(A) Structure and Features of city-states in Italy-

Independent city-states and city courts constituted in Italy.
Some were republics while some others were court-cities like Mantua.
The Commonwealth was a government with Councils constituted by gentlemen, noble and ennobled, who had attained it 25 years ago.

Result-A foundation stone of democracy, however, appeared impliedly.

(b) Humanism in University Curriculum-

Universities set-up in Padua and Bologna.
Law was the main subject in order to module lawyers and notaries to satisfy the increasing demand
Humanities derived from the Latin term Humanitas and is understood as a culture.
Humanists have understood the meaning of a teacher who taught grammar, rhetoric, poetry, history, and moral philosophy.
These subjects were added to the curriculum of Universities.
Discussion and debates in order to gain expertise on these subjects are made mandatory.
Similarly, observation and experiment with the things in order to know reality about them were made essential or compulsory.

Changes/Results-

1. Debate and discussions on humanity and observation and experiments with issues/things/topics trained the authors like Giovanni. Pico Della Mirandola (On The Dignity of Man), Cardinal Gasparo Contarini (The CommonWealth and government of Venice), Dante Alighieri (religious themes), Artists like Giotto (child Jesus, Assisi), The Pieta sculpture by Michelangelo Buonarroti, Filippo Brunelleschi, etc. The humanists who grew in that period were-Giovanni Pico Della Mirandola, Francesco Petrarch, Venetian Cassandra Fedele, Isabella d’Este, Martin Luther, Thomas More, Erasmus, Ulrich Zwingli, and Jean Calvin.

2. There were people like Leonardo da Vinci, experts in astronomy, painting, architecture, and sculpture simultaneously. On account of an inquisitive mind and congenial atmosphere of discussion and debates on subjects of humanities in Universities.

3. Printing Press was installed and it facilitated the study environment. Science academies, schools, and colleges increased in numbers.

4. Classical or Roman and ancient Greek literature on medicine, physiology, religion, theology, and law got translated in Arabic and Persian and then in local languages of Europe. It created public awareness of true religion. It resulted in sheer criticism of the Church, shifting of taxation power to King/Queen, monarchy in place of Churches, and supremacy took place.

5. Peasants movements and Protestant Reform Movement were launched.

6. Radical Protestants took the meaning of salvation, a state when all kinds of suppression are ended.

7. The Church agreed to allow Protestants to worship the Lord in their own manner.

8. The church accepted the subordination of the King.

9. Women humanists like Cassandra Fedele and Isabella d’Este advocated women’s rights equal to men and emphasized women’s education.

10. Quotations, musings by painters, books on humanities, and natural sciences all are ascribed to Changing Traditions.

11. Classical architecture came into existence owing to excavations by archeologists, the sites of the Roman empire, and towns of that period.

12. Technologies and science were contributed by India, Central Asian countries, China, North Europe, and African countries owing to the growth of trade, travel, and commerce as also Mongol conquests, etc.

13. Separate recognition of the public sphere and private spheres of human life. Individual identity got recognition besides constitutional (i.e. guild, profession, government, and any other organization) identities.

14. Europe dissolved into smaller states on a linguistic basis. A separate sense of identity was thus understood on the basis of language.

Conclusion-Education is also an integral part of culture having infinite potential. In the root of cultural changes, we observe systematic promotion of education through ancient Greek and Roman literature on science, administration, religion, architecture, sculpture, painting, etc. during the period in question in Europe? countries symbolized by Italy and her city-states with CommonWealth governance. In brief, it was a phenomenon of education in humanities and natural sciences.

Renaissance or Circumstantial regression and revival of Cultural pursuit-It was actually circumstantial regression and revival of cultural pursuit because vassalage or feudal system and its modified form (i.e. new monarchy) subsequently, have reached the climax and common people had shown annoyance to the system. Churches, monasteries, Cathedrals, Benedictine Churches; all were exporting wealth from the peasants and serfs. Their interference in the stately affair became intolerable to the princes. Corruption was increased and common people were exploited brutally. The gross effect of that circumstance could be seen in the constitution of city-states in the republic and people became curious to know religion in its real form. It stimulated translation of Bible in Local languages, humanities added to university and school curriculum and thus, all ingredients, to changing cultural traditions, were formed

class 9 to 12 ,ncert mcq for upsc,ncert solution,

index A

Changing Cultural Traditions class 11 HISTORY MCQ & SAQ

Changing Cultural Traditions class 11 HISTORY MCQ & SAQ

Changing Cultural Traditions class 11 HISTORY NCERT SOLUTION:

Which elements of Greek and Roman culture were revived in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries?

Compare details of Italian architecture of this period with Islamic architecture.

Answer:

Why were Italian towns the first to experience the ideas of humanism?

Compare the Venetian idea of good government with those in contemporary France.

Answer:

What were the features of humanist thought?

Answer:

Write a careful account of how the world appeared different to seventeenth-century Europeans.

Answer:

Changing Cultural Traditions class 11 HISTORY MCQ :

Changing Cultural Traditions class 11 HISTORY SAQ:

Mention the names of women intellectually creative during the period of the renaissance in Europe.

Answer:

Discuss the underlying principle presumptions constituting independent city-states in Italy.

Answer:

Mention the major developments which took place between the period fourteenth and seventeenth centuries in the orderly timeline.

Answer:

Locate Venice on the map of Italy and look at G.Bellini's paintings. How would you describe the city and in what ways was it different from a Cathedral town?

Answer:

Describe the different scientific elements in the work of sixteenth-century Italian artists.

Answer:

Compare the aspirations of women (Fedele) and men (Castiglione). Did they have only a weapon of a particular class in mind?

Answer:

What were the issues on which the Protestants criticized? the Catholic Church?

Answer:

Why would Copernicus have kept as a secret his life-long theory telling the true position of the earth?

Answer:

How many aims could conclude the dynamism of earth to the extent this fact was accepted by society and we read about them in our science books?

Answer:

What do you understand by the scientific revolution in Europe during the period of the renaissance?

Answer:

Would you say the renaissance was confined to Europe during the period from the fourteenth to the seventeenth century?

Answer:

What do you understand by Private and Public spheres of Life? Explain.

Answer:

Do you agree with Albrecht Durer’s statement that Art is embedded in nature, he who can extract it, has it? Justify your answer with illustrations?

Answer:

Whether Jacob Burckhardt, Professor at the University of Basel in Switzerland is correct in saying that history is as much concerned with culture as with politics? Explain.

Answer:

Imagine that why would eligibility for membership to Council under the institution of the commonwealth be confirmed to gentlemen of the City, State in Italy?

Answer:

Write an essay on the Universities in Europe during the 14th to 17th century.

Answer:

‘Models of painting as found in Italy are the most catchy’. Why?

Answer:

Why does Italian architecture in the sixteenth-century appear the most excellent and admirable?

Answer:

Do you ascribe the printed books as major aspects of bringing renaissance in Italy? Explain.

Answer:

What were the revolutionary ideas of Petrarch and what they did?

Answer:

Why did the humanists divide the middle ages into the medieval period of a millennium in the Dark Ages, The Early middle ages, and the late middle ages?

Answer:

‘Multilingual translation of the works of Greek writers on one hand and that of Arabic and Persian on other European languages had helped in the transmission of science and technology:- Do you agree with this statement?’

Answer:

Give a brief account of the new concept of human beings.

Answer:

Give a brief account of woman status in Europe during the 14th to 17th century.

Answer:

Do you think all women in Europe during the period 14th to 17th century were equally neglected? If not, describe the social and family status of other women?

Answer:

What were the percussions of a new culture of humanism all over the world from Italy? Discuss.

Answer:

Changing Cultural Traditions class 11 HISTORY long question:

Why would have this theme named Changing Cultural Traditions? Find the reasons in context with several developments that took place during the 14th to 17th centuries in European society? Would you call it Renaissance or circumstantial regression and revival of cultural pursuit?

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