A abampere (aA) The unit of electric current in the CGSeniu system, defined as that current that, if flowing through two parallel conductors of negligible cross section and infinite length, placed 1 cm apart in vacuo, would produce on each conductor a force of 1 dyne per centimeter of length. 1 abampere = 1 abcoulomb/s = r statampere (where c = speed of light in cm/s) = 10 ampere. aberration Imperfect image formation due to geometric imperfections in the optical elements of a system ablation 1 . The wasting of glacier ice by any process (calving, melting, evaporation, etc.). 2. The shedding of molten material from the outer sur- face of a meteorite or tektite during its flight through the atmosphere. absolute age The age of a natural substance, of a fossil or living organism, or of an artifact, obtained by means of an absolute dating method. See absolute dating method. absolute density Density in kg/m' or, more commonly, in g/cm\ both at STP. Cf. density, relative density abso
Nomadic Empires class 11 History MCQ & SAQ
Nomadic Empires class 11 History NCERT SOLUTION:
Why was trade so significant to the Mongols?
Answer:
Trade was so significant to the Mongols because of the scant resources of the steppe lands.
The Mongols traded with their sedentary neighbors in China.
Agricultural produce and iron utensils from China were exchanged for horses, furs and the wild animals trapped in the steppe.
Why did Genghis Khan feel the need to fragment the Mongol tribes into new social and military groupings?
Answer:
Among the Mongols, all the able-bodied males of the tribe were part of the armed forces and fought against enemies.
Genghis Khan had united the different Mongol tribes into a powerful army. New conquests also added fresh groups (the Turkic Uighurs and the Kereyits) into his force.
There were soldiers with various identities. This had changed the army into an extremely heterogeneous mass of people.
Genghis Khan worked to systematically erase the old tribal identities of the different groups. He reorganized the army based on the old steppe system of decimal units.
How do later Mongol reflections on the yasa bring out the uneasy relationship they had with the memory of Genghis Khan?
Answer:
The yasa (the code of law) was promulgated at the Quriltai of 1206 by Genghis Khan.
The law codes dealt with customary traditions of the Mongol tribes, their administrative rules on the hunt, the army and the pastaI system.
However, by the middle of the thirteenth century, the Mongols had started treating the yasa as the 'legal code of Genghis Khan'.
They used these laws to hide their uneasy relationship with the memory of Genghis Khan's cruel killings in the past.
They also laid claim to a 'lawgiver' (Genghis Khan) like Moses and Solomon. They imposed these rules on their subjects.
'If history relies upon written records produced by city-based literati, nomadic societies will always receive a hostile representation.' Would you agree with this statement? Does it explain the reason why Persian chronicles produced such inflated figures of casualties resulting from Mongol campaigns?
Answer:
The nomadic societies which lived in the steppes did not produce any historical account, so our knowledge of their societies comes mainly from the writings produced by city-based literati.
These authors often produced ignorant and biased reports of nomadic life. They came from a variety of backgrounds- Buddhist, Confucian, Christian, Turkish and Muslim, and were not familiar with Mongol customs and histories.
This explains the reason why Persian chronicles produced such inflated figures of casualties resulting from Mongol campaigns.
Persian chronicles produced in 11-Khanid Iran exaggerate the number of killings by the Great Khan. For example, in contrast to an eyewitness report that 400 soldiers defended the citadel of Bukhara, an 11- Khanid chronicle reported that 30,000 soldiers were killed in the attack on the citadel.
Keeping the nomadic element of the Mongol and Bedouin societies in mind, how, in your opinion, did their respective historical experiences differ? What explanations would you suggest account for these differences?
Answer:
The Mongol and Bedouin societies had very different historical experiences in terms of geography, customs and their political integration into a larger empire.
Historical experiences of the Bedouins:
The Bedouins of the Arabian Peninsula were the desert tribes; they moved from dry to green areas (oases) of the desert in search of food (mainly dates) and fodder and water for their camels.
The integration of the Bedouins into an imperial empire began with Islam, a belief system started by Muhammad. In 612 CE, he declared himself to be the messenger (rasul) of God and preached that Allah alone should be worshiped.
To consolidate and protect his followers, Muhammad created a political order- the Umma in Medina. This was the beginning of the Islamic state.
The Quran written by Muhammad gave the legal guidance to the Islamic states.
Impressed by Muhammad's achievements, many Bedouins joined the community by converting to Islam.
Historical experiences of the Mongol nomad:
The Mongols were a diverse body of people. Some of them were pastoralists while others were hunter gatherers. They nomadised in the steppes of Central Asia.
In the thirteenth century, Genghis Khan had united them into a powerful army.
Genghis Khan believed that he had a mandate from God to rule the world. His political vision went beyond the creation of a confederacy of Mongol tribes in the steppes of Central Asia.
The Mongols established a transcontinental empire under the leadership of Genghis Khan, in Europe and Asia.
They imposed the yasa (the law of code), shaped by the Mongols' historical tradition, on the subjects to integrate them into the empire.
How does the following account enlarge upon the character of the Pax Mongolica created by the Mongols by the middle of the thirteenth century?
The Franciscan monk William of Rubruck was sent by Louis IX of France to an embassy of the great Khan Mongke's court. He reached Karakorum, the capital of Mongke, in 1254 and came upon a woman
from Lorraine (in France) called Paquette, who had been brought from Hungary and was in the service of one of the prince's wives who was a Nestorian Christian. At the court he came across a Parisian goldsmith named Guillaume Boucher, 'whose brother dwelt on the Grand Pont in Paris'. This man was first employed by Queen Sorghaqtani and then by Monkey's younger brother. Rubruck found that at the great court festivals the Nestorian priests were admitted first, with their regalia, to bless the Grand Khan's cup, and were followed by the Muslim clergy and Buddhist and Taoist monks...
Answer:
The account reveals that the Franciscan monk, William of Rubruck, witnessed people with different cultural backgrounds and skills at the great Khan Mongke's court.
First, he encounters a French woman serving a prince's wife who was a Nestorian Christian. Then he meets a Parisian Goldsmith employed by Monkey's younger brother. Rubruck also finds that at the great court festivals, the Nestorian priests, the Muslim clergy, Buddhist and Taoist monks were admitted to bless the Grand Khan's cup. Thus, the account tries to highlight how the peace ushered in by Mongol conquest (Pax Mongolica) had brought skills and identities of various groups together through trade. The Pax Mongolica was possible because the Mongols linked all the territories in Europe and China.
Nomadic Empires class 11 History MCQ :
1. During Genghis Khan’s attempt to conquer China, North China was ruled by
(a) Hsi Hsia.
(b) Jurchen.
(c) Sung dynasty.
(d) Ogodei.
► (a) Hsi Hsia.
2. Timur, a Barlas Turk who rose to power between 1370-1405 CE, claimed descent from Genghis Khan, through the lineage of:
(a) Chaghtai
(b) Toluy
(c) Jochi
(d) Ogedei
► (a) Chaghtai
3. Through the 1180s and 1190s, Temujin (Genghis Khan) remained an ally of
(a) Boghurchu
(b) Jamuqa
(c) Kerrits
(d) Ong Khan
► (d) Ong Khan
4. What is known as ‘yam’?
(a) Courier system
(b) Army system
(c) Cavalry system
(d) Administration system
► (a) Courier system
5. In 3rd century BCE in China, the fortifications started to be integrated into a common defensive outwork, known as the
(a) ‘Great Wall of China’.
(b) 'Human Weiyuan Fort of China’.
(c) ‘Taku Forts of China’.
(d) 'Wanping Castle of China’.
► (a) ‘Great Wall of China’.
6. The childhood name of Genghis Khan was:
(a) Morin Khuur
(b) Nominjin
(c) Temujin
(d) Tamujin
► (c) Temujin
7. Genghis Khan died in
(a) 1224 CE.
(b) 1225 CE.
(c) 1226 CE.
(d) 1227 CE.
► (d) 1227 CE.
8. The army of Genghis Khan was organized into
(a) clan.
(b) decimal units.
(c) kinship hierarchy.
(d) tribal groups.
► (b) decimal units.
9. The Mongolian and Chinese narratives on Genghis Khan were translated as The Secret History of the Mongols by:
(a) Boris Yakovlevich Vladimirtsov
(b) Igor de Rachewiltz
(c) Marco Polo
(d) Vasily Vladimirovich Bartold
► (b) Igor de Rachewiltz
10. The Mongols traveled with their herds to pasture lands and lived in tents called:
(a) ‘Anda’
(b) ‘Gers’
(c) ‘Noyan’
(d) ‘Yasa’
► (b) ‘Gers’
11. Why was the ‘Great Wall of China Built?
(a) To store grains
(b) For protection of China
(c) To export materials
(d) None of the above
► (b) For protection of China
12. The Mongols imported _______ from China.
(a) Cotton
(b) Crude Oil
(c) Coffee
(d) Iron Utensils
► (d) Iron Utensils
13. Genghis Khan' mother's name was:
(a) Oulun-leke
(b) Oulun-eke
(c) Oulun-Kiyat
(d) None of the above
► (b) Oulun-eke
14. Why Genghis Khan commanded to plunder and destroy Nishapur.
(a) Because a Mongol prince was killed.
(b) Because Nishapur refused to export agricultural produce.
(c) Because they were developing industries
(d) None of the above
► (a) Because a Mongol prince was killed.
15. Why were the Mongols defeated by the Egyptian army?
(a) Because Mongol rulers began to take more interest in China.
(b) Because Mongol army was less equipped
(c) Because Mongols were less developed
(d) None of the above
► (a) Because Mongol rulers began to take more interest in China.
Question : Through the 1180s and 1190s, Temujin (Genghis Khan) remained an ally of
(a) Boghurchu
(b) Jamuqa
(c) Kerrits
(d) Ong Khan
Answer : D
Question : By the ____ century Chero chiefdoms had emerged in the regions of present-day Bihar and Jharkhand?
(a) 10th
(b) 12th
(c) 16th
(d) 17th
Answer : B
Question : Why was the Great Wall of China built?
(a) To store grains
(b) For the protection of China
(c) To export materials
(d) None of the above
Answer : B
Question : Timur, a Barlas Turk who rose to power between 1370-1405 CE, claimed descent from Genghis Khan, through the lineage of:
(a) Chaghtai
(b) Toluy
(c) Jochi
(d) Ogedei
Answer : A
Question : Genghis Khan' mother's name was:
(a) Oulun-leke
(b) Oulun-eke
(c) Oulun-Kiyat
(d) None of the above
Answer : B
Question : When did Mongolia become a republic:
a) 1920
b) 1930
c) 1921
d) 1940
Answer : C
Question: The north-eastern part of the subcontinent was dominated by the
(a) Nagas
(b) Ahoms
(c) Langahs
(d) Both a and b
Answer : D
Question : Who was the founder of Mongal empire?
(a) Genghis Khan
(b) Kublai Khan
(c) Jochi Khan
(d) Batu Khan
Answer : A
Question : The childhood name of Genghis Khan was:
(a) Morin Khuur
(b) Nominjin
(c) Temujin
(d) Tamujin
Answer : C
Question : Why were the Mongols defeated by the Egyptian army?
(a) Because Mongol rulers began to take more interest in China
(b) Because the Mongol army was less equipped
(c) Because Mongols were less developed
(d) None of the above
Answer : A
Question : During Genghis Khan’s attempt to conquer China, North China was ruled by
(a) Hsi Hsia.
(b) Jurchen.
(c) Sung dynasty.
(d) Ogodei.
Answer : A
Question : Which of the following did NOT act as a limitation on the development of central Asian societies?
(a) the aridity of the climate
(b) a lack of trading opportunities
(c) the nomadic lifestyle of the population
(d) the absence of large-scale craft production
Answer : B
Question : Which one is the most important nomadic empire established during the 13th-14th century AD?
(a) Mongol
(b) Huna
(c) Huang D
(d) Gowang
Answer : A
Question : In 3rd century BCE in China, the fortifications started to be integrated into a common defensive outwork, known as the
(a) ‘Great Wall of China’.
(b) 'Human Weiyuan Fort of China’.
(c) ‘Taku Forts of China’.
(d) ‘Wanping Castle of China’.
Answer : A
Question : The Mongolian and Chinese narratives on Genghis Khan were translated as The Secret History of the Mongols by:
(a) Boris Yakovlevich Vladimirtsov
(b) Igor de Rachewiltz
(c) Marco Polo
(d) Vasily Vladimirovich Bartold
Answer : B
Question : What is yam?
(a) Courier system
(b) Army system
(c) Cavalry system
(d) Administration system
Answer : A
Question : The Mongols traveled with their herds to pasture lands and lived in tents called:
(a) ‘Anda’
(b) ‘Gers’
(c) ‘Noyan’
(d) ‘Yasa’
Answer : B
Question : Genghis Khan's mother 's name was:
(a) Oulun-leke
(b) Oulun-eke
(c) Oulun-Kiyat
(d) None of the above
Answer : B
Question : Through the 1180s and 1190s, Temujin (Genghis Khan) remained an ally of
(a) Boghurchu
(b) Jamuqa
(c) Kerrits
(d) Ong Khan
Answer : D
Question : In 3rd century BCE in China, the fortifications started to be integrated into a common defensive outwork, known as the
(a) ‘Great Wall of China’.
(b) 'Human Weiyuan Fort of China’.
(c) ‘Taku Forts of China’.
(d) ‘Wanping Castle of China’
Answer : A
Question : The largest empire of all time was created by the
(a) Romans.
(b) Chinese.
(c) Mongols.
(d) Incas.
Answer : C
Nomadic Empires class 11 History SAQ:
Q. 1. Why did the steppe region possess no cities in the time of the Mongols?
Ans. The Mongols did not take to farming. Their pastoral and hunting-gathering economies were not able to sustain dense population settlements. That is why the region possessed no cities.
Q. 2. The richer Mongol families had many followers. Why?
Ans. The richer Mongol families possessed many animals and pasture lands. They were more influential in local politics also and therefore had many followers.
Q. 3. Why did the Mongol tribes have to wander in search of pastures?
Ans. In the winter season, game and provisions stored by the Mongol tribes ran out. Due to lack of rain, grasslands also got dried. So the Mongol tribes had to wander in search of pastures.
Q. 4. Why did the Mongols sometimes have to face tensions in commerce?
Ans. Sometimes, both the trading groups applied military pressure to enhance profit which created a tense situation.
Q. 5. Why was trade so significant to the Mongols?
Ans. The Mongols imported agricultural produce and iron utensils from China. In exchange, they exported horses, furs and game, trapped in the steppe, to China.
Q. 6. Why was the ‘Great Wall of China’ built?
Ans. Nomadic tribes frequently invaded China. For protection of China from their invasion the ‘Great Wall of China’ was built.
Q. 7. Who was Genghis Khan?
Ans. Genghis Khan was born in present-day Mongolia in around 1162 CE. His early name was Temujin. His father, Yesugei was the chieftain of the Kiyat tribe. His mother’s name was Oelun-eke.
Q. 8. How was Temujin honored after he defeated his enemies?
Ans. Till 1206 CE, Temujin had given a decisive defeat to his enemies. So at an assembly of Mongol chieftains, he was proclaimed the ‘Great Khan of the Mongols’ with the title Genghis Khan, the ‘Oceanic Khan’ or ‘Universal Ruler’.
Q. 9. Why did Genghis Khan command to destroy Nishapur?
Ans. At Nishapur, a Mongol prince was killed during the siege operation. So Genghis Khan commanded them to plunder and destroy Nishapur.
Q. 10. What was said in the command of destroying Nishapur?
Ans. In this command it was said that the “town'' should be laid waste in such a manner that the site could be plowed upon. In an act of vengeance, not even cats and dogs should be left alive”.
Q. 11. At the banks of the Indus, Genghis Khan thought of returning to Mongolia. But, what made him change his mind?
Ans. Following reasons made Genghis Khan change his mind:
(i) It was scorching heat.
(ii) There were difficulties in natural habitat.
(iii) His Shaman soothsayer reported some ill portents.
Q. 12. Into which two phases can Mongol expansion after Genghis Khan’s death be divided?
Ans. After Genghis Khan’s death, Mongol expansion can be divided into the following two phases:
(i) The first phase spanned the years 1236–42 CE. During this period the Mongols obtained major gains in the Russian steppes, Bulghar, Kiev, Poland and Hungary.
(ii) The second phase included the years 1255– 1300 CE. It led to the conquest of China, Iran, Iraq and Syria.
Q. 13. Why were the Mongols defeated by the Egyptian army?
Ans. The Mongol rulers began to take more interest in China. So they diverted their forces into the heartlands of the Mongol dominion. They sent only a small force against the Egyptian military. As a result, the Mongols were defeated.
Q. 14. After the 1260s, what was the reason for the emergence of new trends in Mongol politics?
Ans. (i) Mongol forces retreated from the Hungarian steppes.
(ii) Mongol military was defeated by the Egyptian military.
Q. 15. How Mongol (Genghis Khan) military take the form of a large and organized military?
Ans. Many new soldiers entered the Mongol army with the unification of different Mongol tribes and subsequent campaigns against the diverse people. These soldiers belonged to the diverse groups. In this way, Mongol military took the form of a large and organized military.
Q. 16. What was the Quebec tax?
Ans. Genghis Khan had started a new courier system. For it, the Mongol nomads contributed one tenth of their herd either horses or livestock. This was called the qubcur tax.
Q. 17. The conquered people hardly felt a sense of affinity with their new nomadic masters. Give four reasons.
Ans. (i) Several cities had been destroyed in newly conquered regions.
(ii) Agricultural lands had been laid waste.
(iii) Trade and handicraft products were disrupted.
(iv) Tens of thousands of people had been killed, even more enslaved.
Q. 18. What was the effect of cessation in Mongol’s military campaigns on trade?
Ans. After the cessation in Mongol’s military campaigns, Europe and China were territorial linked. As a result, trade connections matured between the two parts. Commerce along the Silk Route reached its peak under the Mongols.
Q. 19. What arrangement had the Mongols made in their empire for safe travel? How did it make the Mongol authority strong?
Ans. In their empire, the Mongols gave a pass to travelers for safe travel. Traders (travelers) paid the tax for the same purpose and acknowledged the authority of the Mongol Khan. It made the Mughal authorities strong.
Q. 1. Who were the Mongols? Discuss their life.
Ans. The Mongols were a community of diverse people. These people belonged to Tatars, Khitan and Manchus to the east on the basis of similarities of language. In the west, they belonged to the Turkish tribe. Some of the Mongols were pastoralists and the rest of them were hunter-gatherers.
(i) The pastoralists reared animals like horses, sheep and camels, etc. They nomadised in the steppes of Central Asia.
(ii) The hunter and food gatherers lived to the north of the pastoralists in the Siberian forests. They were poorer than the pastoralists. They made a living from trade in furs of animals trapped in the summer months.
(iii) The Mongols lived in tents and used to travel with their herds from their winter to summer pasture lands.
Q. 2. Describe the landscape of the region where the Mongols lived.
Ans. The Mongols lived in the steppes of Central Asia. This region was a tract of land of the modern state of Mongolia. This region was a majestic landscape. It was covered with rolling plains. To its west were snow capped Altai mountains, whereas there was the arid Gobi desert in the south. It was drained by the Onen and Selenga rivers and springs from snow-covered hills in the north and the west. There were many grasslands. In a good season, enough small games were available. Temperature in the steppe region remained the same throughout the year. After a harsh, long winter, a brief dry summer was there. In the pastoral region, agriculture was possible for small parts of the year.
Q. 3. Write down the main characteristics of Mongol tribes.
Ans. The main characteristics of Mongol tribes were as follows:
(i) Mongol tribes were united by ethnic and lingual ties but due to scarcity of resources, their society was divided into patrilineal lineages.
(ii) The richer families were larger. They possessed more animals and pasture lands. They had many followers and these followers were more influential in local politics.
(iii) During periodic natural calamities such as harsh, cold winters, their game and stored provisions ran out. Grasslands were also dried in the absence of rain. So they had to wander in search of pastures.
(iv) There was mutual conflict among Mongol tribes. They also raided for livestock.
(v) Groups of families often allied for offensive and defensive purposes around richer and more powerful lineages.
Q. 4. What was the nature of Mongol confederacies? Write down the similarity and dissimilarity between confederacies formed by Attila and Genghis Khan.
Ans. Mongol confederacies were usually small and short-lived. Gengis Khan made a confederacy of Mongol and Turkic tribes. In size, this confederacy was perhaps equal in size to the confederacy formed by Attila in the fifth century. But, unlike Attila’s confederacy, Genghis Khan’s confederacy system proved far more stable. It was stable enough to counter large armies with superior equipment in China, Iran and eastern Europe. This was the reason why the Mongols succeeded in establishing their control over these regions. They administered complex agrarian economies and urban settlements. The confederacy system established by Genghis Khan survived even after his death.
Q. 5. “Genghis Khan’s army was a mixture of diverse people.” Explain with examples.
Ans. It was necessary for all the healthy adult males of Mongols and many other nomadic societies to bore arms. When the occasion demanded, they constituted the armed forces. Many new members entered Genghis Khan’s army due to the unification of different Mongol tribes and because of subsequent campaigns against diverse people. These soldiers belonged to different communities. That is why a small Mongol army changed into a large organization. This army included groups like the Turkic, Uighurs who had willingly accepted the Mongol authority. Except this, the Kereyits were also included in it who were included in the confederacy despite their earlier hostility.
Q. 6. Why did the conquered people hardly feel a sense of affinity with their new Mongol nomadic masters? What was its result?
Ans. The conquered people hardly felt a sense of affinity with their new Mongol nomadic masters because of the following reasons:
(i) Cities were destroyed during the campaigns in the first half of the 13th century.
(ii) Agricultural lands laid waste.
(iii) There was disruption in trade and production of handicraft.
(iv) Thousands of people were killed and even more were enslaved. In this way, every class of society suffered, including elites and peasantry.
Result. It led to the emergence of Instability in the state. That is why, it was not possible to do periodic maintenance of underground canals in the arid Iranian plateau. As a result, the desert crept in which led to an ecological devastation.
Q. 7. What was the result of the cessation of the Mongol’s military campaigns on the state?
Ans. After the cessation of the Mongol’s military campaigns, territories of Europe and China were linked. Mongol conquest brought peace in the region and trade connections also matured. Trade and commerce, under the Mongols, reached its peak through the Silk Route. Now the trade routes did not end in China. These trade routes now reached Mongolia and to Karakorum in the north. Ease of travel and communication was very important to retain the coherence of the Mongol empire. Passes were given to travelers for safe conduct. These passes were known as paiza in Persian and george in Mongolian. For this purpose, traders paid the tax called ‘baj’. The meaning of paying this tax was that these traders had acknowledged the authority of the Mongol ruler.
Q. 8. How was agriculture promoted with the ease of contradictions between the nomadic and sedentary elements through the thirteenth century?
Ans. Through the thirteenth century, the contradiction was eased between the nomadic and sedentary elements within the Mongol empire. That is why agriculture was promoted to a great deal. For example, in the 1230’s, when Mongols won a war against the Chin dynasty in North China, then one strong pressure group within the Mongol leadership gave an idea that all the peasants should be killed and their fields must be converted into pasture lands. But in the decade of 1270, when the Sung dynasty was defeated and South China was annexed into Mongol empire, the grandson of Genghis Khan, Kublai Khan, came forward as a protector of peasants and cities. In the same way, Mongol ruler of Iran, Ghazan Khan, ordered his family members and other generals not to plunder the peasants. In one of his speeches, he said that this plunder did not lead to a stable prosperous realm.
Q. 9. Briefly discuss the role of civil administrators from the conquered societies in the Mongol administration.
Ans. Right from the region of Genghis Khan, Mongols had started recruiting administrators from the conquered societies. Sometimes they were moved from one place to another. In this way, they helped in integrating the distant provinces. It also reduced the plundering of sedentary people by nomads. The Mongol rulers trusted these administrators as long as they continued to collect taxes for their masters. Some of these administrators were quite influential. Sometimes they were even successful in influencing the policies of Khan’s. For example, in the 1230’s the plundering instincts of Ogodei were changed by his Chinese minister Yeh-lu-Ch’u-ts’ai. The similar role was played by the Juwaini family in Iran. Ghazan Khan delivered a speech to his Mongol Compatriots to not to harass the peasantry and to protect them. This speech was prepared by his wazir, Rashid-ud-din.
Q. 10. What were the achievements of Genghis Khan’s descendants?
Ans. The achievements of Genghis Khan’s descendants were not fewer. They included people of different faiths and beliefs in their society. It is right that Mongol rulers themselves belonged to a number of different faiths but they never dictated their personal beliefs to the public. They recruited soldiers and administrators from different groups. The regime of Mongols was multilingual, multi-ethnic and multireligious. This was quite-strange during those times. It is true that Mongol empire eventually altered in its different milieus but its founder remained a powerful force behind all the inspirations for descendants.
What do you understand by the term years? Explain.
Answer:
It was actually Yasaq when this code of law was promulgated by Genghis Khan at the Quilt of 1206. Yasaq means law, decree, or order in its literary meaning. The detail on the organization of the hunt, the army, and the postal system, David Ayalon, a researcher, found as ingredients of that code of Law. By the middle of the thirteenth century, the Mongols named it as Yasa in a more general sense to mean the legal code of Genghis Khan. It was a compilation of the customary traditions of the Mongol tribes but in referring to it as Genghis Khan’s Code Of Law, the Mongols people also laid a claim to a law-giver like Soloman, whose authoritative Code could be imposed on their subjects,
Do you understand why Genghis Khan did have an identity as a conqueror and brutal murderer of the people in spite of his being the greatest leader of all time?
Answer:
Generally, the predominant virtue or vice imprints the image of the ruler in the head and heart of the common populace. Genghis Khan had ordered massacres in cities like Nishapur, Herat, Baghdad, and smaller towns like Baihaq and Tun (Kurdistan). This predominant vice has dusted on his virtues as the greatest leader of all time, convener of scattered tribal society Lo unite, ruler of a grand transcontinental empire, and keeper of trade routes well restored. Actually, the contrasting images are not simply a case of dissimilar perspectives, they should make us pause and reflect on how one perspective can completely erase all others.
What had ensured the creation of such a vast empire of the Mongols? Discuss?
Answer:
The only thing that remained a powerful force was the inspiration of the nomadic empire i.s. Genghis Khan. Apart from that driving force, we can not understand the inspiration that led to the confederation of fragmented groups of people in the pursuit of an ambition to create an empire merely on going over the nature of documentation on the Mongols and any other nomadic regime. Presently, Mongolia is enjoying freedom from Soviet control and it has revered Genghis Khan as a great natural hero and his achievements are recognized with pride. Thus, Genghis Khan has once again appeared as an iconic figure for the Mongol people among the populace there.
Discuss the implication of the term barbarian.
Answer:
This term has been derived from the greek Barbaros i.e. non-Greek, It was the name of the person on the basis of his language sounded i.e. Barbar. Analogous to children unable to speak or reason properly, cowardly, effeminate, luxurious, cruel, slothful, greedy, and politically unable to govern themselves; were depicted as barbarians in Greek texts. This word was used in the sense of stereotype by Romans for the German tribes, the Gauls, and the Huns. Steppe barbarians were addressed with different terms but none of them carried a positive meaning.
Reproduce the warning that was given by Monglke, the grandson of Genghis Khan to the French ruler Louis IX and enunciate the hidden intention thereupon.
Answer:
We can reproduce said warning as under-“In heaven, there is only the Eternal sky, on Earth, there is only one lord, Genghis Khan, the son of Heaven when by the power of the eternal Heaven, the whole world from the rising of the sun to its setting shall be at one in joy and peace, then it will be made clear what we are going to do if when you have understood that the degree of the Eternal Heaven, you are unwilling to pay attention and believe it, saying, “Our country is far away, our mountains are mighty, our sea is vast,” and in this confidence, you bring an army against us, we know what we can do. He who made easy what was difficult and near, what was far off, the Eternal Heaven Knows.”
Review on the essential components of warning:
Genghis Khan’s empire had covered and was going to cover the limit of rising and setting sun throughout the world.
It has been stated that Genghis Khan’s rule over the earth is predetermined by the Eternal Heaven.
It reveals a strong determination to bring peace and joy to the entire world and its inhabitants.
It threatens Louis IX that it is worth no use considering that the distance and inaccessible territories would defend France.
The last line lays emphasis on an assumption that nowhere is far or near and easy or difficult under the grace of the Eternal Heaven.
Conclusion-The above five important points have been aptly soaked in the creation of psychological terror, a eulogy of the Mongol power and demonstration through speech a strong determination and invincible courage’. His strong faith in the Almighty has also been reflected through this warning.
Discuss the rise of new political trends in Mongols after Genghis Khan?
Answer:
In the period after Genghis Khan and particularly after the 1260s, the original impetus of campaigns could not be sustained in the west. Western Europe and Egypt were within the grasp of Mongol forces yet their retreat from the Hungarian Steppes and defect at the hands of the Egyptian forces exhibited a major change in their attitude. In the first two generations, descendants of Jochi and Ogodei jointly controlled the office of Genghis Khan.
They were marginalized by the Toluid branch of Genghis Khan descendants. The later rulers took more interest in the conquest of China. Hence, westward expansion ceased. Jochen and Toluid descendants began to develop rivalry along the Russian-Iranian frontier. It also had diverted the Jochids away from further European Campaigns.
What was the political set-up in the nomadic empire? Discuss.
There were all group members recruited in the military consisting of the largest unit of soldiers (Turman) i.e. 10,000 soldiers. It integrated different tribes and clans with a new identity.
A new form of the military had to serve under Genghis Khan’s four sons and captains of army units (Royan).
Genghis Khan’s true friends were given representation in statecraft addressed as Anda.
A rank of Naukar was given to fourth-grade employees.
Four houses were divided under the rule of Genghis Khan’s four sons.
Genghis Khan envisaged that his sons would rule the empire collectively like a federation.
Military contingents (Tama) of the individual princes were
placed in each ulus.Quriltan was conferred with power to decide the dominion share of the family members, campaigns, distribution of booty, pasture land, and succession.
Why was there a conflict of interest between pastoralists and peasants? Would Genghis Khan express sentiments of this nature in a speech to his nomad commanders?
Answer:
Pastoralists were used to graze the fields of peasants and occupy the area they owned. Their interest was different because peasants had turned into traders while the pastoralists had only games, furs of animals, etc. to exchange with them. In order to gain more profit in trade, they sometimes looted foodgrains and iron utensils. During the decade of 1230, the Mongols waged their successful war against the chin dynasty in north China and committed a massacre of the peasantry and their fields were converted into pasture lands.
However, this contradiction was eased in the decade of 1290 when Ghazan Khan, a descendant of Genghis Khan’s youngest son Today, warned family members and other generals to avoid pillaging the peasantry. No, Genghis Khan would have not expressed the sentiments as these were expressed by Ghazan Khan in the decade of 1290.
How can you say Yasa, an extremely empowering ideology?
It is because of the following significance added to it-
It addressed the Mongol’s ruling over urban societies with their respective histories, cultures, and laws.
Mongols could protect their identity and distinctiveness through their ancestral Yasa.
It was a compilation of the traditions of the Mongol tribes yet referred to a GenghisKhan’s Code of Law.
Yasa sewed Mongol people around a body of shared beliefs and acknowledged their affirmation to Genghis Khan and his descendants.
It gave them the confidence to return their ethnic identity and impose their law upon their defeated subjects.
Did the meaning of Yasa alter over the four centuries separating Genghis Khan from Abdullah Khan? Why did Hafiz-i – Tanish make a reference to Genghis Khan’s as in connection with Abdullah Khan’s prayer at the Muslim festival ground?
No, instead of any alteration separating Genghis Khan from Abdullah Khan; it became more coherent and interwoven over the four centuries. Hafiz-i-Tanish, the chronicler had referred to Genghis Khans “as” in order to exhibit how even the tricky and extorting act of him i.e. warning rich Muslim residents at the festival ground in Bukhara to confess that they were a sinner and he would compensate for their sins by parting with their hidden wealth-had been remembered as if any noble-deed was performed at that ground. He says that Genghis Khan’s distant descendant Abdullah Khan had offered his holiday prayers at that place.
What developments took place during the period 1236 to 1260?
Batu, the grandson of Genghis Khan, launched a campaign in Russia, Poland, and Austria along 1236-42. Mongke launched fresh campaigns in Iran and China during 1253-55 and events like the capture of Baghdad, the end of the Abbasid caliphate, the establishment of the II- Khanid state of Iran under Hulen, and conflict took place between the Jochids and the II Khans.
What developments did take place in Nomadic Empires by the middle of the thirteenth century?
We can sum-up these alterations as under:
Pressure on the peasantry was witnessed greater in areas distant from the original steppe habitat of the nomads.
Common patrimony, shared by all sons of Genghis Khan, was gradually replaced by Individual dynasties.
The term Ulus was earlier used for territories not fixed but it carried a meaning which declared it as territorial domination.
Speeches activate motors in the human mind so far as the audience set-on on the action immediately. Why does it happen? Reproduce the extract of the warning given by Mongke, the grandson of Genghis Khan to the French Ruler.
Perhaps it takes place owing to the skill of oration. A speech could be made effective when observation, experiments are done, generalization made and the conclusion arrived at; with the determination of action thereupon. These stages naturally make the man bold enough and he renders both touchy and catchy speech. That speech with its echoes activates motor nerves immediately into; the conscience of the audience and with the same pace, the action is decided. Sometimes, the speeches are fumed into crusades which result in undue troubles to the populace and the nation simultaneously.
Reproduction of vital part of the speech cum warning-“In heaven, there is only the eternal sky, On Earth, there is only one lord, Genghis Khan, the son of Heaven-When by the power of the Eternal Heaven the whole world from the rising of the sun to its setting shall be at one in joy and peace, then it will be made clear what we are going to do.”
Vital elements-
Heaven is touched beautifully while the mission is that of wielding worldwide earth.
In order to intimidate each individual not only Louis IX, but it is also sufficient here to give a glimpse of one’s sound aim or mission and that too keeping the entire world with joy and peace under a single umbrella.
The tone of provocation, the fine blending of material with that of meta-physical, and the presentation of Genghis Khan as deputy of God himself to rule over the world-are really amazing and heart-touching.
In what ways do you see the manifestation of speeches so provoking in the period of Nomadic empires?
Mongols were in the minority and that too of multilingual, multi-cultural and multi-customary practices. They were first master-mind Great Khans at whom by virtue of literature and pre-cooked pronunciations, threats, warnings, challenges, and tricks adding populace to their own avowed aim, established a transcontinental empire and suppressed to neglect even of Alexander, who dreamt of being Shahenshah of the world.
Their actions in course of attainment of aims were condemnable and cognizable heinous crimes to society as murder, massacre, plunder, loot, extortion, etc. They massacred, as per available records, 1, 74,7000 people in Nishapur, a toll of 1, 600,000 people at Heart, and 1258,800,000 people in Baghdad. Smaller towns that also had been made blood-reservoir were Nasa-70,000, Baihq district-70,000, and Tun (Kuhistan)-12,000 individuals.
Nomadic Empires class 11 History long question:
Q. 1. Who was Genghis Khan ?How did he become the Great Khan of the Mongols
Ans. Genghis Khan was born near the Onon river, around 1162 CE, which is in the north of present day Mongolia. His early name was Temujin. His father’s name was Yesugei, who was the Chieftain of the Kiyat tribe. His father was murdered when he was quite young. That is why Temujin, his brothers and step brothers were raised in great hardship by his mother, Oulun-eke. Temujin was captured and enslaved in the 1170s. Borte, his wife, was also kidnapped. He fought very hard to recover his wife. He made some important friends during these years of hardship. His first friend was the young Boghurchu who remained a trusted friend of Temujin. His blood-brother, Jamuqa, was his other trusted friend. He again made old alliances with his father’s old brother, Tughril/Ong Khan, who was the ruler of the Kerrits.
Genghis Khan on the Path of becoming the Great Khan : Temujin’s blood-brother, Jamuqa, became his enemy in later years. In the 1180s and 1190s, Temujin defeated powerful adversaries like Jamuqa with the help of Ong Khan. It was after defeating Jamuqa that Temujin felt confident enough to move against his other enemies. These included his father’s assassins, the powerful Tatars, the Kereyits and Ong Khan himself. In 1206 CE, he gave the final defeat to the Naiman people and the powerful Jamuqa.
Proclamation of Genghis Khan as the Great Khan: After his success on enemies, Temujin emerged as the dominant personality in the politics of the steppe lands. This position of his was recognised at an assembly of Mongol chieftains (quriltai). In this assembly he was proclaimed the Great Khan of the Mongols with the title Genghis Khan, the ‘Oceanic Khan’ or ‘Universal Ruler’.
Q. 2. After recognition by the quriltai, discuss the military achievements of Genghis Khan.
Ans. Before the Quriltai of 1206, Mongol people were reorganized by Genghis Khan into a disciplined and more effective force. Now he wanted to conquer China. At this time, China was divided into the following three realms:
(i) The North-Western provinces were ruled by the Hsi Hsia people.
(ii) The Chin dynasty ruled North China from Peking.
(iii) South China was controlled by the Sung dynasty.
Conquest of China: In the Chinese regions, many campaigns were launched by Genghis Khan.
(i) By 1209 CE, he defeated the Hsi Hsia people.
(ii) In 1213 CE, the Great Wall of China was breached.
(iii) Peking was plundered in 1215.
Until 1234 CE, long drawn-out battles against the Chin continued. But Genghis Khan was satisfied with the progress of his campaigns. That is why he came back to Mongolia in 1216 CE by leaving the military affairs of the region to his subordinates.
Other Campaigns. Mongols conquered the great cities like Bukhara, Otar, Balkh, Samarqand, Merv, Gurganj, Herat, Nishapur, etc., in the campaigns between 1219 and 1221. Those towns were destroyed by those who tried to resist. During a siege operation, a Mongol prince was killed at Nishapur. Genghis Khan was furious with this and ordered that, “town should be laid waste in such a manner that the site could be plowed upon, and that in the exaction of vengeance (for the death of the prince) not even cats and dogs should be left alive.”
In the mean time, Mongol forces reached Azerbaijan while pursuing Sultan Muhammad. They defeated Russian forces at the Crimea and encircled the Caspian Sea. Another unit of the army followed the son of Sultan Jalal-ud-din till Afghanistan and Sindh. When they reached the banks of the river Indus, Genghis Khan thought of returning back to Mongolia through North India and Assam. But he was forced to change his mind by the excessive heat, the natural habitat and ill portents reported by his Shaman soothsayer. Genghis Khan spent most of his life in military combat and died in 1227 CE. His military achievements were outstanding.
Q. 3. Discuss political activities of the Mongols after Genghis Khan.
Ans. After Genghis Khan’s death in 1227, the Mongol empire was divided into two phases:
(i) The first phase spanned the years 1236–42 when the Mongols obtained major gains in the Russian Steppes, Bulghar, Kiev, Poland and Hungary.
(ii) The second phase spanned the years 1255– 1300 in which the whole of China, Iran, Iraq and Syria were conquered.
In the decades after 1203, the Mongol military forces faced certain hardships. But the original impetus of campaigns could not be sustained in the west after the 1260s. It is right that Vienna, western Europe and even Egypt were well within the reach of Mongol forces but when forces retreated from the Hungarian steppes and when they were defeated by Egyptian forces then there came the signals of the emergence of new political trends. There were two facets of this:
(i) The first was the result of internal politics of succession within the Mongol family. In this, descendants of Jochi and Ogodei tied up with each other to control the office of the Great Khan. Instead of pursuing campaigns in Europe, these interests were given more importance.
(ii) The second situation occurred when the Toluid branch of Genghis Khan Descendants sidelined or marginalized the Jochi and Ogodei lineages. When Mongke, grand-son of Genghis Khan, became the ruler, military campaigns were launched in Iran during the 1250’s. But in the decade of 1260, descendants of Today started taking more interest in China. That is why supplies and forces were diverted into the heartlands of the Mongol empire. As a result, a small and under-staffed force was fielded against the Egyptian military because of which it was defeated. Their western expansion came to an end with this defeat and this increased their interests in China. During this, conflicts started between Toluyid and Jochid descendants along the Russian-Iranian frontiers. It diverted the Jochids away from more European campaigns. Their expansion in the west was suspended but it did not stop their campaigns in China. In the end, they unified China.
Q. 4. What do you know about the four Ulus?
Ans. Genghis Khan assigned his four sons the responsibility of governing the newly conquered people. In this way, four Ulus were organized. It did not originally mean fixed territories. On the other hand, Genghis Khan was busy conquering new areas. That is why, frontiers of the empire kept on changing.
(i) The Russian steppe region was given to Jochi, the eldest son of Genghis Khan. But there was no fixed farthest extent of this region. It extended to the far east.
(ii) Genghis Khan’s second son, Chaghatai, received the Transoxianian steppe and lands north of the Pamir mountains which were adjacent to those of his brother.
(iii) Genghis Khan had indicated that he would be succeeded by his third son, Ogodei, as the Great Khan. Ogodei established his capital at Karakorum on accession.
(iv) Tolui, youngest son of Genghis Khan, received the ancestral lands of Mongolia. Genghis Khan was of the view that his four sons would collectively rule the empire. That is why he kept military contingents of the individual princes in each Ulus. The sense of a dominion was shared by the members of the family which could be seen at the assembly of chieftains. Decisions were taken collectively on all aspects.
Q. 5. What was the condition of the Mongol Empire in the thirteenth century? What role did ‘Yasa’ play in it?
Ans. By the middle of the thirteenth century, the Mongols emerged as a unified group. They created the largest empire. They ruled over the most complex urban societies who had their own cultures, histories and rules. Although the Mongols had political dominance over their reign, they were in the minority from a numerical point of view. They could claim to protect their identity and distinctiveness through a sacred law (yasa) which was given to them by their ancestors. There is a great possibility that yasa was a compilation of the customary traditions of the Mongol tribes. But by calling it as a code of law of Genghis Khan, the Mongols claimed to be a law giver like Moses and Solomon. It means that their code was authoritative like the code of Moses and Solomon and could be imposed on their subjects. Role of Yasa : Yasa had been to coerce the Mongols around a body of shared beliefs. It also accepted their affinity to Genghis Khan and his descendants. Although they adopted different aspects of a sedentary lifestyle, even then yasa helped them to retain their ethnic identity and to impose their law on defeated people. Yasa was a very powerful ideology. It was definitely inspired by the vision of Genghis Khan who played a great role in the construction of a Mongol universal dominion.
“It is the phenomenon of circumstances which reformed Temujin into Genghis Khan i.e. The King of the universe. Coincide with the essence of revenge against exploitation of steppe tribes by Chinese in the south duly planned.” Describe the circumstances formed since the beginning and their impact on Genghis Khan.
Answer:
As per the requirement of things to be brought nearer and give birth to cause and effect, the action and its results for every phenomenon, we would have to understand the meaning of circumstances in broader view in which topography, Landforms, Climate, Soil, Terrain and moreover, the training of instincts, etc. under the following sub-heads:-
(A) Location and conditions of a terrain-The map of the entire Mongol Empire exhibits is surrounded by a number of seas and oceans and particularly, we will discuss here, Central Asia’s Steppes where Temujin was born. It was the modem state of Mongolia where during the lifetime of Genghis Khan; a majestic landscape with wide horizons, rolling plains, surrounded by snow capped Altai mountains in the west, the arid Gobi desert in the South were existed and drained by the Qnon and Selenga rivers was topography and landforms. Moreover, there were numerous springs from the melting snow of the hills in the north and the west. There was, therefore, no dearth of the game, however, in a small quantum, available in a good season.
B. Society-As the topography determines all physical traits
and pursuits, here were the hunter-gatherers and pastoralists i.e. two kinds of survival-based societies. At the north of Siberian forests, the hunter-gatherers and at its south, there were pastoralists.
Owing to the similarity of language, tribes like Tatars, Kotan, and Manchus were jointly called the Mongols. There was a Turkish tribe also in the west of the Steppe. Thus, there was a multicultural and multi¬social assembly of people under the Nomadic Empire.
C. Childhood and its percussion-Child Temujin were born near the Onon River in the north of present-day Mongolia. His clan was Borjigid and a group of families was known as Kiryat. He saw his father i.e. chieftain of Kiryat murdered at his tender age. He also witnessed his mother’s problems in the course of rearing his brothers and step-brothers. He suffered all ills prevailing in the tribe and he was once captured, enslaved and his wife was kidnapped soon after his marriage.
These shocks became a source of his intelligence as these made him more aware of society than his physical age expected. We can see the percussions in the form of ghost massacre, he committed ‘ through the army on conquests of Nishapur, Herat, Baghdad, etc. cities and smaller towns like Nasa, Baihaqi, and Tun (Kurdistan Province). The instinct of cruelty thus had been born and nurtured since the tender age of Genghis Khan.
Temujin had to fight in order to get back his wife. Some friends ( like Jamuqa were turned hostile, his father’s murderers (Tatars) were thrust into his mental faculty, and the spirit of revenge cooked therein. He soon developed a strategy, however, unfair and defeated all his rivals r and murdered them. Thus, emotions backed motivation, became the highway to move in plunder, loot, arson, and massacre, he committed fearlessly but in a facade of his being a deputy of God, the almighty.
His tricky mind had its manifestation in the form of the warning to Louis IX by Mongke, his grandson, his own declaration, decree before the populace of the rich at the festival ground, etc. In the festival ground, in a shrewd manner, he says-‘O people know that you have committed great sins and that the great ones among you have committed these sins. If you ask me what proof I have for these vices, I say it is because I am the punishment of God. If you had not committed great sins, God would not have sent a punishment like me upon you.
(d) Skill of uniting people–Genghis Khan created a vague impression that he had been born as a magistrate of God to punish the sinners. He first met the people of diverse tribes, applied the statement of suppression of allies and explained to them how they could fight against exploitation made by Chinese rulers at that time. The similarity of language helped him the most. He expressed this rubbish to rule the world, made them bold by saying that he had a mandate from God. The extract of his grandson’s warning to Louis IX makes it clear-“In Heaven, there is truly one Eternal sky, on the earth, there is only one lord. Thus, they constituted a confederacy of Mongols and conducted war campaigns. He attained the title of Genghis Khan (Universal Ruler) under a proclamation.
E. Pseudo-Polity-The polity exercised or practiced by Mongols or the Great Khan’s was actually a pseudo one as in the name of Eternal Heaven. He bagged the support of the diverse society in central Asia. His title was also a mirage as he was only a Chieftain to the confederacy, not a universal king at the time that proclamation was made.
Mongol rulers were shrewd ones, as we can reproduce the difference between the speech made by Genghis Khan and mentioned by Hafiz-i-Tanish, a chronicler about the same place. That place was the festival ground where Genghis Khan declared all the rich as sinners and himself as to punish them by Eternal Heaven. He further says that they can compensate for sins by parting with their hidden wealth.
Thus he very shrewd way, compelled the populace to give him all their hidden wealth in a mixture of emotional exploitation and physical coercion (terror). At the same place, the chronicler writes that his distant descendant Abdullah Khan had gone to offer holiday prayer there. It exhibits that the entire race of great Khans was shrewd enough in misrepresentation of facts and strong affinity and reverence for its founder.
The same type of misrepresentation we see in the matter of Yasaq is initially accepted as law, decree or order and confined merely to the affairs like the organization of the hunt, the army, and the postal system. The late Mongol’s redefined it as Yasa i.e. sacred law given to them by their ancestor. They made overt amendments matching the size of the empire and the trends of the populace and thus, the entire contents of that code were overhauled. However, all successors of Genghis Khan 1 maintained it thoroughly attached to the creation of their ancestors.
They also laid a claim Genghis Khan’s being not less than other law-givers like Moses and the king Soloman. A blend of all tribal people was recruited as soldiers and officers were deployed to the places/ territories which were not their native-lands.
Eg. Chinese secretaries deployed in Iran and Persians in China. Genghis Khan divided the empire into Houses and made each son governor in each such division.
Conclusion-On the basis of aspects of great Khan's ruling procedure and mechanism, it can be. stated that circumstances themselves had knitted the web of a nomadic empire which was trans-continental in its expansion.
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